tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84841783741132613722024-03-13T09:47:44.196-07:00hendrasmarthendrasmarthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10478205207072099754noreply@blogger.comBlogger2125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8484178374113261372.post-64366389210874047242011-07-08T06:59:00.000-07:002011-07-08T06:59:36.670-07:00DEFINISI PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Wednesday, July 1, 2009<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;"><a href="" name="9198230730492352580"></a><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">DEFINISI PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN <o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa dia pengajaran?<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pengajaran ialah sesuatu tugasan dan aktiviti yang diusahakan bersama oleh guru dan muridnya. Pengajaran ini adalah dirancangkan guru secara sisitematik dan teliti untuk melaksanakannya dengan kaedah dan teknik mengajar yang sesuai, membimbing, menggalak dan memotivasikan murid supaya mengambil inisiatif untuk belajar, demi memperolehi ilmu pengetahuan dan menguasai kemahiran yang diperlukan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apakah ciri-ciri Pengajaran?<o:p></o:p></span></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">guru dan murid,<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FR" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">guru sebagai pengajar dan murid sebagai pembelajar,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">hanya bermakna apabila ada pembelajaran,<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">melibatkan instruksi diikuti dengan latihan, indoktrinasi dan pelaziman,<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">melibatkan proses pemikiran dan penggunaan bahasa atau symbol,<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ada kaitan dengan tugasan dan pencapaian,<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">boleh dijalankan dengan aktiviti berpusatkan guru, murid dan gabungan guru-murid serta berpusatkan sumber,<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">meliputi rancangan mengajar (KOPI),<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">proses yang melibatkan interaksi dua hala,<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FR" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ada unsur sains dan seni.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FR" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apa dia pembelajaran?</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FR" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Umumnya “Pembelajaran merupakan proses memperolehi ilmu pengetahuan atau kemahiran”. Mengikut Robert M. Gagne (1970) dalam <i>The Condition of Learning</i>, pembelajaran merupakan “perubahan tingkahlaku atau kebolehan seseorang yang dapat dikekalkan, tidak termasuk perubahan yang disebabkan proses pertumbuhan”.</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FR" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mengikut Woolfolk (1980) dalam <i>Educational Psychology for Teachers</i>, pembelajaran dilihat sebagai perubahan dalaman yang berlaku kepada seseorang dengan membentuk perkaitan yang baru, atau sebagai potensi yang sanggup menghasilkan tindak balas yang baru.</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pembelajaran :<o:p></o:p></span></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Satu proses yang berterusan,<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Secara formal dan tak formal,<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Secara formal melalui sekolah – membaca, menulis & mengira dsb.,<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Secara tak formal melalui rakan sebaya, keluarga, media massa, persekitaran.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FR" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: FR; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mempunyai teori-teori atau mazhab pembelajaran,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Empat mazhab pembelajaran utama – behavioris, kognitif, sosial dan humanis.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Posted by sarina at </span><a href="http://sarinapraktikum.blogspot.com/2009/07/definisi-pengajaran-dan-pembelajaran.html" title="permanent link"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8:35 PM</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PENDAHULUAN</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.1 PENGERTIAN BELAJAR</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.1.A Pengertian belajar menurut kamus bahasa Indonesia : </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Belajar adalah berusaha memperoleh kepandaian atau ilmu, berlatih, berubah tingkah laku atau tanggapan yang disebabkan oleh pengalaman.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.1.B Pengertian belajar menurut beberapa ahli :</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Menurut james O. Whittaker (Djamarah, Syaiful Bahri , Psikologi Belajar; Rineka Cipta; 1999) Belajar adalah Proses dimana tingkah laku ditimbulkan atau diubah melalui latihan atau pengalaman.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Winkel, belajar adalah aktivitas mental atau psikis, yang berlangsung dalam interaksi aktif dengan lingkungan yang menghasilkan perubahan-perubahan dalam pengetahuan, pemahaman, ketrampilan, nilai dan sikap.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Cronchbach (Djamarah, Syaiful Bahri , Psikologi Belajar; Rineka Cipta; 1999) Belajar adalah suatu aktifitas yang ditunjukkan oleh perubahan tingkah laku sebagai hasil dari pengalaman.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Howard L. Kingskey (Djamarah, Syaiful Bahri, Psikologi Belajar; Rineka Cipta; 1999) Belajar adalah proses dimana tingkah laku ditimbulkan atau diubah melalui praktek atau latihan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Drs. Slameto (Djamarah, Syaiful Bahri, Psikologi Belajar; Rineka Cipta; 1999) Belajar adalah suatu proses usaha yang dilakukan individu untuk memperoleh suatu perubahan tingkah laku yang baru secara keseluruhan, sebagai hasil pengalaman individu itu sendiri di dalam interaksi dengan lingkungannya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. (Djamarah, Syaiful Bahri, Psikologi Belajar; Rineka Cipta; 1999)<br />
Belajar adalah serangkaian kegiatan jiwa raga untuk memperoleh suatu perubahan tingkah laku sebagai hasil dari pengalaman individu dalam interaksi dengan lingkungannya yang menyangkut kognitif, afektif dan psikomotor.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. R. Gagne (Djamarah, Syaiful Bahri, Psikologi Belajar; Rineka Cipta; 1999) hal 22. Belajar adalah suatu proses untuk memperoleh motivasi dalam pengetahuan, ketrampilan, kebiasaan dan tingkah laku<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8. Herbart (swiss) Belajar adalah suatu proses pengisian jiwa dengan pengetahuan dan pengalamn yang sebanyak-banyaknya dengan melalui hafaln<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9. Robert M. Gagne dalam buku: the conditioning of learning mengemukakan bahwa: Learning is change in human disposition or capacity, wich persists over a period time, and which is not simply ascribable to process a groeth. Belajar adalah perubahan yang terjadi dalam kemampuan manusia setelah belajar secara terus menerus, bukan hanya disebabkan karena proses pertumbuhan saja. Gagne berkeyakinan bahwa belajar dipengaruhi oleh faktor dari luar diri dan faktor dalm diri dan keduanya saling berinteraksi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10. Lester D. Crow and Alice Crow (WWW. Google.com) Belajar adalah acuquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. Belajar adalah upaya-upaya untuk memperoleh kebiasaan-kebiasaan, pengetahuan dan sikap.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11. Ngalim Purwanto (1992) (WWW. Google.com) Belajar adalah setiap perubahan yang relatif menetap dalam tingkah laku, yang terjadi sebagi hasil dari suatu latihan atau pengalaman.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.2 CIRI-CIRI BELAJAR</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ciri-ciri belajar adalah sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Adanya kemampuan baru atau perubahan. Perubahan tingkah laku bersifat pengetahuan (kognitif), keterampilan (psikomotorik), maupun nilai dan sikap (afektif).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Perubahan itu tidak berlangsung sesaat saja melainkan menetap atau dapat disimpan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Perubahan itu tidak terjadi begitu saja melainkan harus dengan usaha. Perubahan terjadi akibat interaksi dengan lingkungan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Perubahan tidak semata-mata disebabkan oleh pertumbuhan fisik/ kedewasaan, tidak karena kelelahan, penyakit atau pengaruh obat-obatan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Berikut beberapa faktor pendorong mengapa manusia memiliki keinginan untuk belajar:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Adanya dorongan rasa ingin tahu<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Adanya keinginan untuk menguasai Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Teknologi sebagai tuntutan zaman dan lingkungan sekitarnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Mengutip dari istilah Abraham Maslow bahwa segala aktivitas manusia didasari atas kebutuhan yang harus dipenuhi dari kebutuhan biologis sampai aktualisasi diri.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Untuk melakukan penyempurnaan dari apa yang telah diketahuinya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Agar mampu bersosialisasi dan beradaptasi dengan lingkungannya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. Untuk meningkatkan intelektualitas dan mengembangkan potensi diri.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. Untuk mencapai cita-cita yang diinginkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8. Untuk mengisi waktu luang.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.3 JENIS-JENIS BELAJAR</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.3.A Menurut Robert M. Gagne</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.35pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Manusia memilki beragam potensi, karakter, dan kebutuhan dalam belajar. Karena itu banyak tipre-tipe belajar yang dilakukan manusia. Gagne mencatat ada delapan tipe belajar :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Belajar isyarat (signal learning). Menurut Gagne, ternyata tidak semua reaksi sepontan manusia terhadap stimulus sebenarnya tidak menimbulkan respon.dalam konteks inilah signal learning terjadi. Contohnya yaitu seorang guru yang memberikan isyarat kepada muridnya yang gaduh dengan bahasa tubuh tangan diangkat kemudian diturunkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Belajar stimulus respon. Belajar tipe ini memberikan respon yang tepat terhadap stimulus yang diberikan. Reaksi yang tepat diberikan penguatan (reinforcement) sehingga terbentuk perilaku tertentu (shaping). Contohnya yaitu seorang guru memberikan suatu bentuk pertanyaan atau gambaran tentang sesuatu yang kemudian ditanggapi oleh muridnya. Guru member pertanyaan kemudian murid menjawab.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Belajar merantaikan (chaining). Tipe ini merupakan belajar dengan membuat gerakan-gerakan motorik sehingga akhirnya membentuk rangkaian gerak dalam urutan tertentu. Contohnya yaitu pengajaran tari atau senam yang dari awal membutuhkan proses-proses dan tahapan untuk mencapai tujuannya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Belajar asosiasi verbal (verbal Association). Tipe ini merupakan belajar menghubungkan suatu kata dengan suatu obyek yang berupa benda, orang atau kejadian dan merangkaikan sejumlah kata dalam urutan yang tepat. Contohnya yaitu Membuat langkah kerja dari suatu praktek dengan bntuan alat atau objek tertentu. Membuat prosedur dari praktek kayu.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Belajar membedakan (discrimination). Tipe belajar ini memberikan reaksi yang berbeda–beda pada stimulus yang mempunyai kesamaan. Contohnya yaitu seorang guru memberikan sebuah bentuk pertanyaan dalam berupa kata-kata atau benda yang mempunyai jawaban yang mempunyai banyak versi tetapi masih dalam satu bagian dalam jawaban yang benar. Guru memberikan sebuah bentuk (kubus) siswa menerka ada yang bilang berbentuk kotak, seperti kotak kardus, kubus, dsb.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. Belajar konsep (concept learning). Belajar mengklsifikasikan stimulus, atau menempatkan obyek-obyek dalam kelompok tertentu yang membentuk suatu konsep. (konsep : satuan arti yang mewakili kesamaan ciri). Contohnya yaitu memahami sebuah prosedur dalam suatu praktek atau juga teori. Memahami prosedur praktek uji bahan sebelum praktek, atau konsep dalam kuliah mekanika teknik.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. Belajar dalil (rule learning). Tipe ini meruoakan tipe belajar untuk menghasilkan aturan atau kaidah yang terdiri dari penggabungan beberapa konsep. Hubungan antara konsep biasanya dituangkan dalam bentuk kalimat. Contohnya yaitu seorang guru memberikan hukuman kepada siswa yang tidak mengerjakan tugas yang merupakan kewajiban siswa, dalam hal itu hukuman diberikan supaya siswa tidak mengulangi kesalahannya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8. Belajar memecahkan masalah (problem solving). Tipe ini merupakan tipe belajar yang menggabungkan beberapa kaidah untuk memecahkan masalah, sehingga terbentuk kaedah yang lebih tinggi (higher order rule). Contohnya yaitu seorang guru memberikan kasus atau permasalahan kepada siswa-siswanya untuk memancing otak mereka mencari jawaban atau penyelesaian dari masalah tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Selain delapan jenis belajar, Gagne juga membuat semacam sistematika jenis belajar. Menurutnya sistematika tersebut mengelompokkan hasil-hasil belajar yang mempunyai ciri-ciri sama dalam satu katagori. Kelima hal tersebut adalah :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. keterampilan intelektual : kemampuan seseorang untuk berinteraksi dengan lingkungannya dengan menggunakan symbol huruf, angka, kata atau gambar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. informasi verbal : seseorang belajar menyatakan atau menceritakan suatu fakta atau suatu peristiwa secara lisan atau tertulis, termasuk dengan cara menggambar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. strategi kognitif : kemampuan seseorang untuk mengatur proses belajarnya sendiri, mengingat dan berfikir.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. keterampilan motorik : seseorang belajar melakukan gerakan secara teratur dalam urutan tertentu (organized motor act). Ciri khasnya adalah otomatisme yaitu gerakan berlangsung secara teratur dan berjalan dengan lancar dan luwes. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. sikap keadaan mental yang mempengaruhi seseorang untuk melakukan pilihan-pilihan dalam bertindak.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.3.B Menurut Bloom</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Benyamin S. Bloom (1956) adalah ahli pendidikan yang terkenal sebagai pencetus konseptaksonomi belajar. Taksonomi belajar adalah pengelompokkan tujuan berdasarkan domain atau kawasan belajar. Menurut Bloom ada tiga dmain belajar yaitu :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cognitive Domain (Kawasan Kognitif). Adalah kawasan yang berkaitan dengan aspek-aspek intelektual atau secara logis yang bias diukur dengan pikiran atau nalar. Kawasan ini tediri dari:</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pengetahuan <i>(Knowledge).</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pemahaman <i>(Comprehension).</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Penerapan <i>(Aplication)</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Penguraian <i>(Analysis)</i>.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Memadukan <i>(Synthesis)</i>.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Penilaian <i>(Evaluation)</i>.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Affective Domain (Kawasan afektif). Adalah kawasan yang berkaitan dengan aspek-aspek emosional, seperti perasaan, minat, sikap, kepatuhan terhadap moral dan sebagainya. Kawasan ini terdiri dari:</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Penerimaan <i>(receiving/attending).</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sambutan <i>(responding).</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Penilaian <i>(valuing)</i>.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pengorganisasian <i>(organization).</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karakterisasi <i>(characterization)</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 81.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Psychomotor Domain (Kawasan psikomotorik). Adalah kawasan yang berkaitan dengan aspek-aspek keterampilan yang melibatkan fungsi sistem syaraf dan otot <i>(neuronmuscular system)</i> dan fungsi psikis. Kawasan ini terdiri dari:</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kesiapan <i>(set)</i> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Meniru <i>(imitation)</i> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Membiasakan <i>(habitual)</i> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 99.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Adaptasi <i>(adaption)</i> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27.0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.3.C Penggabungan Dari Tiga Ahli (A. De Block, Robert M. Gagne, C. Van Parreren</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Belajar arti kata-kata. Belajar arti kata-kata maksudnya adalah orang mulai menangkap arti yang terkandung dalam kata-kata yang digunakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Belajar Kognitif. Tak dapat disangkal bahwa belajar kognitif bersentuhan dengan masalah mental. Objek-objek yang diamati dihadirkan dalam diri seseorang melalui tanggapan, gagasan, atau lambang yang merupakan sesuatu bersifat mental.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Belajar Menghafal. Menghafal adalah suatu aktivitas menanamkan suatu materi verbal dalam ingatan, sehingga nantinya dapat diproduksikan {diingat} kembali secara harfiah, sesuai dengan materi yang asli, dan menyimpan kesan-kesan yang nantinya suatu waktu bila diperlukan dapat diingat kembali kealam dasar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Belajar Teoritis. Bentuk belajar ini bertujuan untuk menempatkan semua data dan fakta {pengetahuan} dalam suatu kerangka organisasi mental, sehingga dapat difahami dan digunakan untuk memecahkan problem, seperti terjadi dalam bidang-bidang studi ilmiah.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Belajar Konsep. Konsep atau pengertian adalah satuan arti yang mewakili sejumlah objek yang mempunyai ciri-ciri yang sama, orang yang memiliki konsep mampu mengadakan abstraksi terhadap objek-objek yang dihadapinya, sehingga objek ditempatkan dalam golongan tertentu.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. Belajar Kaidah. Belajar kaidah {rule} termasuk dari jenis belajar kemahiran intelektual {intellectual skill}, yang dikemukakan oleh Gagne. Belajar kaidah adalah bila dua konsep atau lebih dihubungkan satu sama lain, terbentuk suatu ketentuan yang mereprensikan suatu keteraturan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. Belajar Berpikir. Dalam belajar ini, orang dihadapkan pada suatu masalah yang harus dipecahkan, tetapi tanpa melalui pengamatan dan reorganisasi dalam pengamatan.masalah harus dipecahkan melalui operasi mental, khususnya menggunakan konsep dan kaidah serta metode-metode bekerja tertentu.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Konsep Dewey tentang berpikir menjadi dasar untuk pemecahan masalah adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 99.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Adanya kesulitan yang dirasakan dan kesadaran akan adanya masalah.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 99.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Masalah itu diperjelas dan dibatasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 99.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mencari informasi atau data dan kemudian data itu diorganisasikan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 99.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mencari hubungan-hubungan untuk merumuskan hipotesis-hipotesis, kemudian hipotesis-hipotesis itu dinilai, diuji, agar dapat ditentukan untuk diterima atau ditolak.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 99.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Penerapan pemecahan terhadap masalah yang dihadapi sekaligus berlaku sabagai pengujian kebenaran pemecahan tersebut untuk dapat sampai pada kesimpulan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Menurut Dewey, langkah-langkah dalam pemecahan masalah adalah sebagai berikut.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 99.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kesadaran akan adanya masalah.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 99.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Merumuskan masalah.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 99.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mencari data dan merumuskan hipotesis-hipotesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 99.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Menguji hipotesis-hipotesis itu.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 99.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ø </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Menerima hipotesis yang benar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.3.D Menurut UNESCO</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">UNESCO telah mengeluarkan kategori jenis belajar yang dikenal sebagai empat pilar dalam kegiatan belajar ( A. Suhaenah Suparno, 2000 ) :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Learning to know. Pada Learning to know ini terkandung makna bagaimana belajar, dalam hal ini ada tiga aspek : apa yang dipelajari, bagaimana caranya dan siapa yang belajar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Learning to do. Hal ini dikaitkan dengan dunia kerja, membantu seseorang mampu mempersiapkan diri untuk bekerja atau mencari nafkah. Jadi dalam hal ini menekankan perkembangan ketrampilan untuk yang berhubungan dengan dunia kerja.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Learning to live together. Belajar ini ditekankan seseorang/pihak yang belajar mampu hidup bersama, dengan memahami orang lain, sejarahnya, budayanya, dan mampu berinteraksi dengan orang lain secara harmonis.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Learning to be. Belajar ini ditekankan pada pengembangan potensi insani secara maksimal. Setiap individu didorong untuk berkembang dan mengaktualisasikan diri. Dengan learning to be seseorang akan mengenal jati diri, memahami kemampuan dan kelemahanya dengan kompetensi-kompetensinya akan membangun pribadi secara utuh.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.4 PENGERTIAN PEMBELAJARAN </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Istilah pembelajaran berhubungan erat dengan pengertian belajar dan mengajar. Belajar, mengajar dan pembelajaran terjadi bersama-sama. Belajar dapat terjadi tanpa guru atau tanpa kegiatan mengajar dan pembelajaran formal lain. Sedangkan mengajar meliputi segala hal yang guru lakukan di dalam kelas.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.4.A Pengertian pembelajaran menurut kamus bahasa Indonesia : </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pembelajaran adalah proses, cara menjadikan orang atau makhluk hidup belajar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.4.B Pengertian pembelajaran menurut beberapa ahli :</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 1.25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Duffy dan Roehler (1989). Pembelajaran adalah suatu usaha yang sengaja melibatkan dan menggunakan pengetahuan profesional yang dimiliki guru untuk mencapai tujuan kurikulum.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 1.25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Gagne dan Briggs (1979:3). Mengartikan instruction atau pembelajaran ini adalah suatu sistem yang bertujuan untuk membantu proses belajar siswa, yang berisi serangkaian peristiwa yang dirancang, disusun sedemikian rupa untuk mempengaruhi dan mendukung terjadinya proses belajar siswa yang bersifat internal.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.5 CIRI-CIRI PEMBELAJARAN</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ciri-ciri pembelajaran sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. merupakan upaya sadar dan disengaja<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. pembelajaran harus membuat siswa belajar<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. tujuan harus ditetapkan terlebih dahulu sebelum proses dilaksanakan<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. pelaksanaannya terkendali, baik isinya, waktu, proses maupun hasilnya<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.6 PEMBELAJARAN, PENGAJARAN, PEMELAJAR, DAN PEMBELAJAR</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pembelajaran adalah separangkat tindakan yang dirancang untuk mendukung proses belajar siswa, dengan memperhitungkan kejadia-kejadian ekstrim yang berperan terhadap rangkaian kejadian-kejadian intern yang berlangsung dialami siswa (Winkel,1991)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pengajaran adalah proses, perbuatan, cara mengajar atau mengajarkan perihal mengajar, segala sesuatu mengenai mengajar, peringatan (tentang pengalaman, peristiwa yang dialami atau dilihatnya). (Dariyanto S.S, Kamus Bahasa Indonesia, 1997). <span style="color: black;">Pengajaran adalah kegiatan yang dilakukan guru dalam menyampaikan pengetahuan kepada siswa. Pengajaran juga diartikan sebagi interaksi belajar dan mengajar. Pengajaran berlangsung sebagai suatu proses yang saling mempengaruhi antara guru dan siswa.</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pemelajar adalah orang yang melakukan pengajaran.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pembelajar adalah orang yang melakukan pembelajaran.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Perbedaan antara pengajaran dan pembelajaran:<o:p></o:p></span></div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 39.75pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;"><tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;"> <td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 11.8pt;" valign="top" width="16"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">NO<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border-left: none; border: inset 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 178.85pt;" valign="top" width="238"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pengajaran<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border-left: none; border: inset 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 195.85pt;" valign="top" width="261"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pembelajaran<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;"> <td style="border-top: none; border: inset 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 11.8pt;" valign="top" width="16"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: inset 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: inset 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 178.85pt;" valign="top" width="238"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dilaksanakan oleh mereka yang berprofesi sebagai pengajar<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: inset 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: inset 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 195.85pt;" valign="top" width="261"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dilaksanakan oleh mereka yang dapat membuat orang belajar<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;"> <td style="border-top: none; border: inset 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 11.8pt;" valign="top" width="16"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: inset 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: inset 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 178.85pt;" valign="top" width="238"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tujuannya menyampaikan informasi kepada si belajar<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: inset 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: inset 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 195.85pt;" valign="top" width="261"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tujuannya agar terjadi belajar pada diri siswa<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;"> <td style="border-top: none; border: inset 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 11.8pt;" valign="top" width="16"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: inset 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: inset 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 178.85pt;" valign="top" width="238"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Merupakan salah satu penerapan strategi pembelajaran<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: inset 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: inset 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 195.85pt;" valign="top" width="261"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Merupakan cara untuk mengembangkan rencana yang terorganisasi untuk keperluan belajar.<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td style="border-top: none; border: inset 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 11.8pt;" valign="top" width="16"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: inset 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: inset 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 178.85pt;" valign="top" width="238"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kegiatan belajar berlangsung bila ada guru atau pengajar<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: inset 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: inset 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: inset windowtext .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 195.85pt;" valign="top" width="261"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kegiatan belajar dapat berlangsung dengan atau tanpa hadirnya guru<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.7 PRINSIP PEMBELAJARAN MENURUT GAGNE DAN ATWI SUPARMAN</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Beberapa prinsip pembelajaran dikemukakan oleh Atwi Suparman dengan mengadaptasi pemikiran Fillbeck (1974), sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Respon-respon baru (new responses) diulang sebagai akibat dari respon yang terjadi sebelumnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Perilaku tidak hanya dikontrol oleh akibat dari respon, tetapi juga di bawah pengaruh kondisi atau tanda-tanda dilingkungan siswa.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Perilaku yang timbul oleh tanda-tanda tertentu akan hilang atau berkurang frekuensinya bila tidak diperkuat dengan akibat yang menyenangkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Belajar yang berbentuk respon terhadap tanda-tanda yang terbatas akan ditransfer kepada situasi lain yang terbatas pula. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Belajar menggeneralisasikan dan membedakan adalah dasar untuk belajar sesuatu yang kompleks seperti yang berkenaan dengan pemecahan masalah.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. Situasi mental siswa untuk menghadapi pelajaran akan mempengaruhi perhatian dan ketekunan siswa selama proses siswa belajar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. Kegiatan belajar yang dibagi menjadi langkah-langkah kecil dan disertai umpan balik menyelesaikan tiap langkah, akan membantu siswa.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8. Kebutuhan memecah materi kompleks menjadi kegiatan-kegiatan kecil dapat dikurangi dengan mewujudkan dalam suatu model.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9. Keterampilan tingkat tinggi (kompleks) terbentuk dari keterampilan dasar yang lebih sederhana.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10. Belajar akan lebih cepat, efisien, dan menyenangkan bila siswa diberi informasi tentang kualitas penampilannya dan cara meningkatkannya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11. Perkembangan dan kecepatan belajar siswa sangat bervariasi, ada yang maju dengan cepat ada yang lebih lambat.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">12. Dengan persiapan, siswa dapat mengembangkan kemampuan mengorganisasikan kegiatan belajarnya sendiri dan menimbulkan umpan balik bagi dirinya untuk membuat respon yang benar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dalam buku Condition of Learning, Gagne (1997) mengemukakan sembilan prinsip yang dapat dilakukan guru dalam melaksanakan pembelajaran, sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Menarik perhatian (<i>gaining attention</i>) : hal yang menimbulkan minat siswa dengan mengemukakan sesuatu yang baru, aneh, kontradiksi, atau kompleks.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Menyampaikan tujuan pembelajaran (<i>informing learner of the objectives</i>) : memberitahukan kemampuan yang harus dikuasai siswa setelah selesai mengikuti pelajaran.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Mengingatkan konsep/prinsip yang telah dipelajari (<i>stimulating recall or prior learning</i>) : merangsang ingatan tentang pengetahuan yang telah dipelajari yang menjadi prasyarat untuk mempelajari materi yang baru.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Menyampaikan materi pelajaran (<i>presenting the stimulus</i>) : menyampaikan materi-materi pembelajaran yang telah direncanakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Memberikan bimbingan belajar (<i>providing learner guidance</i>) : memberikan pertanyaan-pertanyaan yamng membimbing proses/alur berpikir siswa agar memiliki pemahaman yang lebih baik.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. memperoleh kinerja/penampilan siswa (<i>eliciting performance</i>) ; siswa diminta untuk menunjukkan apa yang telah dipelajari atau penguasaannya terhadap materi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. memberikan balikan (<i>providing feedback</i>) : memberitahu seberapa jauh ketepatan performance siswa.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8. Menilai hasil belajar (<i>assessing performance</i>) :memberiytahukan tes/tugas untuk mengetahui seberapa jauh siswa menguasai tujuan pembelajaran.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9. Memperkuat retensi dan transfer belajar (<i>enhancing retention and transfer</i>): merangsang kamampuan mengingat-ingat dan mentransfer dengan memberikan rangkuman, mengadakan review atau mempraktekkan apa yang telah dipelajari.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BAB II</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PEMBAHASAN</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">II.1 PENGERTIAN DAN CIRI-CIRI BELAJAR </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Menurut analisis penulis, Belajar merupakan proses yang aktif untuk memahami hal-hal baru dengan pengetahuan yang kita miliki. Di sini terjadi penyesuaian dari pengetahuan yang sudah kita miliki dengan pengetahuan baru. Dengan kata lain, ada tahap evaluasi terhadap informasi yang didapat, apakah pengetahuan yang kita miliki masih relevan atau kita harus memperbarui pengetahuan kita sesuai dengan perkembangan zaman.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sebagaimana dikatakan bahwa belajar pada dasarnya adalah suatu proses perubahan manusia. Dalam ilmu psikologi, proses belajar berarti cara-cara atau langkah-langkah (manners or operation) khusus yang dengannya beberapa perubahan ditimbulkan hingga tercapai tujuan tertentu. (Rober ,1988, dalam Muhibin,1995). Dalam pengertian tersebut tahapan perubahan dapat diartikan sepadan dengan proses. Jadi proses belajar adalah tahapan perubahan perilaku kognitif, afektif dan psikomotor yang terjadi dalam diri siswa. Perubahan tersebut bersifat positif dalam arti berorientasi ke arah yang lebih maju dari pada keadaan sebelumnya. Dalam uraian tersebut digambarkan bahwa belajar adalah aktifitas yang berproses menuju pada satu perubahan dan terjadi melalui tahapan-tahapan tertentu.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ada banyak bentuk-bentuk perubahan yang terdapat dalam diri manusia yang ditentukan oleh kemampuan dan kemauan belajarnya sehingga peradaban manusia itupun tergantung dari bagaimana manusia belajar. Belajar juga memainkan peranan penting dalam mempertahankan sekelompok umat manusia di tengah persaingan yang semakin ketat dengan bangsa-bangsa lain yang lebih dahulu maju karena belajar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kemajuan hasil belajar bidang pengetahuan dan teknologi tinggi digunakan untuk membuat senjata pemusnah sesama manusia. Jadi belajar disamping membawa manfaat namun dapat juga menjadi mudarat. Meskipun ada dampak negatif dari hasil belajar namun kegiatan belajar memiliki arti penting yaitu dengan belajar seseorang dapat mempertahankan dirinya untuk tetap bertahan hidup dari segala macam gangguan baik yang datang dari dalam dirinya maupun juga yang datang dari luar dirinya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">II.2 JENIS-JENIS BELAJAR</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 45.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bedasarkan teori-teori yang telah dipaparkan dalam BAB I, banyak cara dalam melakukan proses balajar . Di dalam proses belajar terdapat berbagai macam jenis belajar. Jenis-jenis belajar menurut Gagne terbagi menjadi 8 jenis yaitu Belajar isyarat (signal learning), Belajar stimulus respon, Belajar merantaikan (chaining), Belajar asosiasi verbal (verbal Association), Belajar membedakan (discrimination), Belajar konsep (concept learning), Belajar dalil (rule learning), Belajar memecahkan masalah (problem solving).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 45.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dari kedelapan jenis tersebut dapat menumbuhkembangkan perilaku kognitif yang mencakup pengetahuan, pemahaman, aplikasi, analisis dan sintesis dan evaluasi. Selain dari kognititf aspek avektif dan psikomotor sesorang juga tumbuh. Aspek afektif mencakup </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Penerimaan, Sambutan, Penilaian, Pengorganisasian, Karakterisasi. Sedangkan psikomotor mencakup Kesiapan <i>(set)</i>, Meniru <i>(imitation)</i>, Membiasakan <i>(habitual)</i>, Adaptasi <i>(adaption)</i>.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Dari tumbuhnya ketiga aspek tersebut barulah seseorang dapat dikatakan telah mencapai tujuan dari belajar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 45.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Belajar kognitif dimana adalah belajar yang berkaitan dengan aspek intelektual. Kompetensi kawasan kognitif meliputi menghafal, memahami, mengaplikasikan,menganalsis, mensitesakan dan menilai pengalaman belajar. Pengalaman belajar untuk kegiatan hafalan dapat berupa berlatih menghafal misalnya menggunakan jembatan ingatan yaitu dengan dihubungkan dengan benda-benda, kata-kata atau sebagainya yang biasa ditemukan dan mudah diingat sebagai jembatan kita untuk mengingat hafalan kita. Jenis materi pembelajaran yang perlu dihafal dapat berupa fakta,konsep,prinsip, dan procedure. Pengalaman belajar untuk tingkat pemahaman dilakukan dengan membandingkan, mengidentifikasikan karakteristik dan sebagainya. Pengalaman belajar tingkatan aplikasi dilakukan dengan jalan menerapkan rumus dalil atau prinsip terhadap kasus nyata yang terjadi di lapangan. Pengalaman belajar tingkatan sintesis dilakukan dengan memadukan berbagai unsure atau komponen,menyusun membentuk bangunan, menggambar dan sebagainya. Pengalaman belajar untuk mencapai kemampuan dasar tingkatan penilaian dilakukan dengan memberikan penilaian terhadap objek studi menggunakan criteria tertentu.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 45.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Berkaitan dengan kawasan afektif, pengalaman belajar yang perlu dilakukan agar siswa mencapai tingkatan kompetensi afektif yaitu dengan mengamati dan menirukan contoh/model, mendatangi objek studi yang dapat memupuk pertumbuhan nilai, berbuat atau berpartisipasi aktif sesuai dengan tuntutan nilai yang dipelajari dan sebagainya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 45.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Untuk kawasan psikomotor, pengalaman belajar yang dapat dilakukan untuk mencapai kompetensi ini adalah berlatih dengan frekuensi tinggi dan intensif, latihan menirukan, menstimulasikan, mendemonstrasikan, gerakan yang ingin dikuasai.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1I.3 PEMBELAJARAN DAN PENGAJARAN</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Proses pembelajaran dialami setiap orang sepanjang hayat serta dapat berlaku di manapun dan kapanpun. Pembelajaran merupakan interaksi antara peserta didik dengan lingkungannya sehingga terjadi perubahan perilaku kearah yang lebih baik. Dalam pembelajaran tugas guru yang paling utama adalah mengkondisikan lingkungan agar menunjang terjadinya perubahan perilaku bagi peserta didik. Pada dasarnya Pembelajaran mempunyai pengertian yang mirip dengan pengajaran, walaupun mempunyai </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konotasi&action=edit"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">konotasi</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang berbeda. Dalam konteks </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendidikan"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pendidikan</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guru"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">guru</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> mengajar supaya peserta didik dapat belajar dan menguasai isi pelajaran hingga mencapai sesuatu objektif yang ditentukan (aspek kognitif), juga dapat mempengaruhi perubahan sikap (aspek afektif), serta keterampilan (aspek psikomotor) seseorang peserta didik. Pengajaran memberi kesan hanya sebagai pekerjaan satu pihak, yaitu pekerjaan guru saja. Sedangkan pembelajaran juga menyiratkan adanya interaksi antara guru dengan peserta didik. Di dalam pembelajaran dapat berlangsung dengan atau tanpa hadirnya guru.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dalam proses belajar terdapat komponen pendukung yang dapat mendorong tercapainya tujuan utama dari proses pembelajaran yang ditandai dengan adanya perubahan perilaku. Proses belajar dapat terjadi baik secara alamiah maupun direkayasa. Proses balajar secara alamiah biasanya terjadi pada kegiatan yang umumya dilakukan oleh setiap orang dan kegiatan belajar ini tidak direncanakan. Sedangkan proses belajar yang direkayasa merupakan proses belajar yang memiliki sistematika yang jelas dan telah direncanakan sebelumnya guna mencapai tujuan yang diinginkan. Dalam proses ini metode yang digunakan disesuaikan dengan tujuan yang hendak dicapai. Dalam hal ini proses belajar yang direkayasa yang lebih memungkinkan tercapainya perubahan perilaku karena ada rancangan yang berisi metode dan alat pendukung.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dalam mengembangkan kegiatan pembelajaran, kegiatan pembelajaran harus dirancang untuk memberikan pengalaman belajar pada peserta didik. Pengalaman belajar yang dimaksud dapat terwujud melalui penggunaan pendekatan pembelajaran yang bervariasi dan berpusat pada peserta didik. Oleh karena itu kegiatan pembelajaran disusun untuk memberikan bantuan kepada pengajar, khususnya siswa agar dapat melaksanakan proses pembelajaran secara professional. Kegiatan pembelajaran memuat rangkaian kegiatan yang harus dilakukan oleh siswa secara berurutan untuk mencapai kompetensi dasar. Penentuan urutan kegiatan pembelajaran harus sesuai dengan kirarki konsep materi pembelajaran, dan rumusan pernyataan dalam kegiatan pembelajaran minimal mengandung dua unsure penciri yang mencerminkan pengelolaan pengalaman belajar siswa yaitu kegiatan siswa dan materi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">II.4 PRINSIP-PRINSIP BELAJAR </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 27.35pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dalam melaksanakan pembelajaran, agar dicapai hasil yang lebih optimal perlu diperhatikan beberapa prinsip pembelajaran. Prinsip pembelajaran dibangun atas dasar prinsip-prinsip yang ditarik dari teori psikologi terutama teori belajar dan hasil-hasil penelitian dalam pembelajaran. Prinsip pembelajaran bila diterapkan dalam proses pengembangan pembelajaran dan pelaksanaan pembelajaran akan diperoleh hasil yang lebih optimal. Oleh karena itu untuk mencapai kegiatan pembelajaran yang efektif dan efisien, guru harus memperhatikan prinsip-prinsip pembelajaran yang dikemukakan oleh Gagne dan Atwi Suparman.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 27.35pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pembelajaran yang efektif dan bermakna dapat dilakukan dengan prosedur pemanasan dan apersepsi, eksplorasi, konsolidaesi pembelajaran, pembentukan kompetensi; sikap dan perilaku, penilaian formatif.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 27.35pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada dasarnya prinsip-prinsip belajar adalah perhatian, motivasi, keaktifan siswa, keterlibatan langsung, pengulangan belajar, materi belajar yang merangsang dan menantang, penguatan kepada siswa dan aspek psikologi lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Perhatian<span style="color: black;">, dalam pembelajaran guru hendaknya tidak mengabaikan masalah perhatian. Sebelum pembelajaran dimulai guru hendaknya menarik perhatian siswa agar siswa berkonsentrasi dan tertarik pada materi pelajaran yang sedang diajarkan. </span><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Motivasi, Jika perhatian siswa sudah terpusat maka langkah guru selanjutnya memotivasi siswa. Walaupun siswa udah termotivasi dengan kegiatan awal saat guru mengkondisikan agar perhatian siswa terpusat pada materi pelajaran yang sedang berlangsung. Namun guru wajib membangun motivasi sepanjang proses belajar dan pembelajaran berlangsung agar siswa dapa mengikuti pelajaran dengan baik. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Keaktifan siswa, Pembelajaran yang bermakna apabila siswa aktif dalam proses belajar dan pembelajaran. Siswa tidak sekedar menerima dan menelan konsep-konsep yang disampaikan guru, tetapi siswa beraktivitas langsung. Dalam hal ini guru perlu menciptakan situasi yang menimbulkan aktivitas siswa. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Keterlibatan langsung, pelibatan langsung siswa dalam proses pembelajaran adalah penting. Siswalah yang melakukan kegiatan belajar bukan guru. Supaya siswa banyak terlibat dalam proses pembelajaran, guru hendaknya memilih dan mempersiapkan kegiatan-kegiatan sesuai dengan tujuan pembelajaran. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pengulangan belajar, Penguasaan meteri oleh siswa tidak bisa berlangsung secara singkat. Siswa perlu melakukan pengulangan-pengulangan supaya meteri yang dipelajari tetap ingat. Oleh karena itu guru harus melakukan sesuatu yang membuat siswa melakukan pengulangan belajar.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Materi pelajaran yang merangsang dan menantang, kadang siswa merasa bosan dan tidak tertarik dengan materi yang sedang diajarkan. Untuk menghindari gejala yang seperti ini guru harus memilih dan mengorganisir materi sedemikikan rupa sehingga merangsang dan menantang siswa untuk mempelajarinya. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Balikan atau penguatan kepada siswa, penguatan atau reinforcement mempunyai efek yang besar jika sering diberikan kepada siswa. Setiap keberhasilan siswa sekecil apapun, hendaknya ditanggapi dengan memberikan penghargaan. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Aspek-aspek psikologi lain, setiap siswa memiliki karakteristik yang berbeda. Perbedaan individu baik secara fisik maupun secara psikis akan mempengaruhi cara belajar siswa tersebut, sehingga guru perlu memperhatikan cara pembelajaran yang diberikan kepada siswa tersebut misalnya, mengatur tempat duduk, mengatur jadwal pelajaran , dll. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 27.35pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BAB III </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: 27.35pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PENUTUP</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">KESIMPULAN</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Belajar adalah suatu usaha sadar yang dilakukan oleh individu dalam perubahan tingkah lakunya baik melalui latihan dan pengalaman yang menyangkut aspek kognitif, afektif dan psikomotor untuk memperoleh tujuan tertentu. Adapun Ciri-ciri belajar adalah sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Adanya kemampuan baru atau perubahan. Perubahan tingkah laku bersifat pengetahuan (kognitif), keterampilan (psikomotorik), maupun nilai dan sikap (afektif).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Perubahan itu tidak berlangsung sesaat saja melainkan menetap atau dapat disimpan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Perubahan itu tidak terjadi begitu saja melainkan harus dengan usaha. Perubahan terjadi akibat interaksi dengan lingkungan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Perubahan tidak semata-mata disebabkan oleh pertumbuhan fisik/ kedewasaan, tidak karena kelelahan, penyakit atau pengaruh obat-obatan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pembelajaran adalah kegiatan yang dirancang untuk mendukung proses belajar yang ditandai dengan adanya perubahan perilaku yang sesuai dengan tujuan pembelajaran.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jenis-jenis belajar menurut Robert M. Gagne :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Belajar isyarat (signal learning).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Belajar stimulus respon.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Belajar merantaikan (chaining).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Belajar asosiasi verbal (verbal Association).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Belajar membedakan (discrimination<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. Belajar konsep (concept learning).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. Belajar dalil (rule learning).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8. Belajar memecahkan masalah (problem solving).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jenis-jenis belajar menurut Benyamin S. Bloom :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cognitive Domain (Kawasan Kognitif). </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Affective Domain (Kawasan afektif).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Psychomotor Domain (Kawasan psikomotorik).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 14.15pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jenis-jenis belajar penggabungan dari tiga ahli (A. De Block, Robert M. Gagne, C. Van Parreren</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">) :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Belajar Arti Kata-kata. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Belajar Kognitif.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Belajar Menghafal.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Belajar Teoritis. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Belajar Konsep.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. Belajar Kaidah<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. Belajar Berpikir<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Prinsip-prinsip belajar menurut Gagne :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Menarik perhatian (<i>gaining attention</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Menyampaikan tujuan pembelajaran (<i>informing learner of the objectives</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Mengingatkan konsep/prinsip yang telah dipelajari (<i>stimulating recall or prior learning)</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Menyampaikan materi pelajaran (<i>presenting the stimulus</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Memberikan bimbingan belajar (<i>providing learner guidance</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. memperoleh kinerja/penampilan siswa (<i>eliciting performance</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. memberikan balikan (<i>providing feedback</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8. Menilai hasil belajar (<i>assessing performance</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9. Memperkuat retensi dan transfer belajar (<i>enhancing retention and transfer</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div><h1 style="text-align: justify;">Teori pembelajaran dan pengajaran</h1><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Daripada Wikipedia, ensiklopedia bebas.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Lompat ke: <a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori_pembelajaran_dan_pengajaran#mw-head">pandu arah</a>, <a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori_pembelajaran_dan_pengajaran#p-search">cari</a> </div><div style="text-align: justify;">Tugas utama seorang pengajar atau guru adalah untuk memudahkan <b>pembelajaran</b> para pelajar. Untuk memenuhi tugas ini, pengajar atau <a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guru" title="Guru">guru</a> bukan sahaja harus dapat menyediakan suasana pembelajaran yang menarik dan harmonis, tetapi mereka juga menciptakan pengajaran yang berkesan. Ini bermakna guru perlu mewujudkan suasana pembelajaran yang dapat meransangkan minat pelajar di samping sentiasa memikirkan kebajikan dan keperluan pelajar.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Dalam sesi pembelajaran, guru kerap berhadapan dengan pelajar yang berbeza dari segi kebolehan mereka. Hal ini memerlukan kepakaran guru dalam menentukan strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Ini bermakna, guru boleh menentukan pendekatan, memilih kaedah dan menetapkan teknik-teknik tertentu yang sesuai dengan perkembangan dan kebolehan pelajar. Strategi yang dipilih itu, selain berpotensi memeransangkan pelajar belajar secara aktif, ia juga harus mampu membantu menganalisis konsep atau idea dan berupaya menarik hati pelajar serta dapat menghasilkan pembelajaran yang bermakna.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Perlunya guru menarik perhatian pelajar dalam sesuatu pengajaran, aktiviti-aktiviti yang dipilih hendaklah yang menarik dan mempunyai potensi yang tinggi untuk membolehkan isi pelajaran dan konsep-konsep yang diterjemahkan secara jelas. Aktiviti harus boleh mempengaruhi intelek, emosi dan minat pelajar secara berkesan.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Dalam merancang persediaan mengajar, aktiviti-aktiviti yang dipilih perlu mempunyai urutan yang baik. Ia perlu diselaraskan dengan isi kemahiran dan objektif pengajaran. Lazimnya aktiviti yang dipilih itu adalah gerak kerja yang mampu memberi sepenuh pengaruh terhadap perhatian, berupaya meningkatkan kesan terhadap intelek, ingatan, emosi, minat dan kecenderungan serta mampu membantu guru untuk menjelaskan pengajarannya.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Dalam merancang aktiviti mengajar yang berkesan dan bermakna kepada para pelajar, guru haruslah memikirkan terlebih dahulu tentang kaedah dan teknik yang akan digunakan. Pemilihan strategi secara bijaksana mampu menjamin kelicinan serta keberkesanan penyampaian sesuatu subjek atau modul.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Di antara kaedah dan teknik yang boleh digunakan oleh guru ialah :</div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Kaedah sumbang saran</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Kaedah tunjuk cara (demonstrasi)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Simulasi atau kaedah pengajaran kumpulan</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Kaedah perbincangan atau kaedah penyelesaian masalah</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Kaedah oudioligual</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Kaedah kodkognetif</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Kaedah projek</li>
</ul><div style="text-align: justify;">Penggunaan kaedah dan teknik yang pelbagai akan menjadikan sesuatu pengajaran itu menarik dan akan memberi ruang untuk membolehkan pelajar terlibat secara aktif dan bergiat sepanjang sesi pengajaran tanpa merasa jemu dan bosan. Dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran, terdapat beberapa kaedah dan teknik yang berkesan boleh digunakan oleh guru. Oleh yang demikian pemilihan terhap kaedah dan teknik pelulah dilakukan secara berhati-hati supaya cara-cara ini tidak menghalang guru melaksanakan proses pembentukan konsep-konsep secara mudah dan berkesan. Kaedah projek yang diasaskan oelh John Deney misalnya, menggalakkan pelajar mempelajari sesuatu melalui pengalaman, permerhatian dan percubaan. Pelajar merasa seronok menjalankan ujikaji aktiviti lain yang dilakukan dalam situasi sebenar dan bermakna. Biasanya kaedah ini memberi peluang kepada pelajar menggunakan kemudahan alat deria mereka untuk membuat pengamatan dan penanggapan secara berkesan. Dari segi penggunaan teknik pula, guru boleh menggunakan apa sahaja teknik yang difikirkan sesuai sama ada teknik menerang, teknik mengkaji, teknik penyelesaian mudah, teknik bercerita dan teknik perbincangan. Penggunaan contoh-contoh adalah asas dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Hal ini kerana ia dapat melahirkan pemikiran yang jelas dan berkesan. Biasanya seorang guru menerangkan idea-idea yang komplek kepada sekumpulan pelajar, guru itu dikehendaki memberi contoh-contoh dan iluktrasi. Idea yang abstrak, konsep-konsep yang baru dan susah, lebih mudah difahami apabila guru menggunakan contoh-contoh dengan ilutrasi yang mudah dan konkrit. Misalnya, dalam bentuk lisan iaitu dengan mengemukakan analogi, bercerita, mengemukakan metafora dan sebagainya. Contoh-contoh boleh juga boleh ditunjukkan dalam bentuk visual, lakaran, ilustrasi dan lain-lain.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">3. Memory</div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Address three pressing problem you have faced in your class and solve these problem based on what you now know about Memory.</li>
</ul><div style="text-align: justify;">Kesediaan belajar antara seorang individu dengan seorang individu yang lain biasnya tidak setara. Ini kerana tahap atau proses pertumbuhan atau perkembangan mereka tidak sama dan searah. Walaupun terdapat semacam satu kecenderungan yang sama dalam pertumbuhan mereka tetapi fizikal, mental, emosi dan social mereka tetap berbeza. Biasanya hal-hal seperti inilah yang banyak menimbulkan masalah kepada guru, sama ada pada peringkat kesediaan perancangan atau pada peringkat melaksanakan pelajaran mereka. Masalah perbezaan kesediaan belajar boleh dikaitkan daripada tiga sudut pandangan dari segi kematangan a. kematangan fizikal b. kematangan intelek c. kematangan emosi</div><div style="text-align: justify;">a. Kematangan fizikal Pekembangan pada fizikal manusia pada amnya, menunjukkan kecekalan yang tinggi. Namun begitu, perbezaan yang besar antara mereka. Guru-guru perlu berhati-hati terhadap perbezaan yang wujud di kalangan pelajar. Dalam konteks kesediaan belajar, perhatian terhadap corak pertumbuhan dan perkembangan fizikal seperti ini adalah amat penting. Pengetahuan tentang apa yang dijangkakan akan berlaku dalam pertumbuhan perkembangan normal berupaya membantu guru menyediakan asas pembelajaran. Perkembangan teknik dan kaedah pengajaran dan penggunaan alat Bantu mengajar. Jika berlaku penyimpangan terhadap cirri-ciri yang normal di kalangan pelajar, guru harus mampu menghadapinya. Guru sepatutnya boleh membuat apa sahaja penyesuaian yang berfaedah. Tindakan berhati-hati daripada guru ini boleh memajukan lagi perkembangan potensi semula jadi pelajar.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">b. Kematangan intelek (mentel) Kebolehan mental ditakrifkan sebagai kebolehan mentafsir deria (persepsi), kebolehan membina bahan-bahan yang tidak ada pada deria (imagenasi), kobolehan untuk mengingati kembali apa yang telah dialami (ingatan) dan kebolehan meneruskan kesimpulan tentang hal-hal yang diprolehi daripada pengalaman ataupun yang abstrak. Kematangan intelek tidak mempunyai hadnya. Biasanya, ia menunjukkan kemajuan, iaitu bermula daripada kegiatan mental yang paling mudah bergerak kepada proses mental yang lebih kompleks. Pertumbuhan inteleks seseorang itu dapat ditentukan pada tahapsejauh manakah kemajuan itu berada. Dalam hubungannya dengan kesediaan belajar, perubahan-perubahan perkembangan dalam keupayaan intelek seperti ini patutlah diberi perhatian. Walaupun perkembangan intelek itu merupakan proses yang berlaku secara berperingkat-peringkat dan berterusan, namun proses ini tidak sama bagi semua pelajar. Memang terdapat kecenderungan am yang sama dalam kalangan mereka yang sedang menjelani proses kematangan tetapi kadar pertumbuhan adalah berbeza-beza. Oleh yang demikian, mereka yang bertanggungjawabdengan pembelajaran dan pengajaran perlulah mengambil kira perbezaan-perbezaan ini dan memikirkan dengan teliti fakta ini sebelum merancang dan seterusnya melaksanakan tugas mereka dalam kelas.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">c. Kematangan Emosi Emosi menggambarkan satu kaedaan yang dikaitkan oleh dorangan-dorongan melalui satu cara tertentu. Ia melibatkan gangguan dalaman yang meluas dan mengandungi nada perbezaan atau berbagai-bagai darjah kepuasan dan gangguan . Ahli-ahli psikologi dan fisiologi sependapat bahawa emosi melibatkan perasaan, gerak hati dan tindak balas fisiologi. GGGerak hati atau desakan dalaman yang mengarahkan sesuatu jenis pelakuan mungkin terjadi dalam perbagai gabungan dan peringkat, secara umum, emosi dapat diertikan sebagai suatu pengalaman yang penuh perasaan, yang melibatkan penyalarasan dalaman secara am dengan keadaan mental dan fisiologi yang bergerak dalam diri individu dan kemudiannya diperlihatkan dalam bentuk tingkah laku yang nyata. 4. Metacognition - What is your reaction to the video on metacognition? - Explain in your own words three or more benefits of applying metacognition in your classes AND - How would you apply metagnition in your classes?</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Metacognition dapatlah ditafsir sebagai elemen yang mempunyai kaitan rapat dengan kesedaran tentang proses yang dilaksnankan secara berfikir. Menurut Bronw (1980) metacognition’ adalah merupakan ilmu pengetahuan atau kesedaran yang terdapat kepada seseorang yang membolehkannya. Gadner (1992) berpendapat kebolehan mengawal proses berfikir ini adalah dipengaruhi oleh umur dan pengalaman seseorang. Seorang pelajar lebih tua dari segi umur dan tinggi dari aspek persekolahan boleh menyedari, mengawal dan mengamalkan starategi berfikir berhubung dengan satu-satu masalah lebih baik daripada pelajar yang muda dan rendah tahap persekolahannya. Boyer dalam model ‘ Functional Thinking’ nya menyatakan lebih jelas bahawa ‘ Metacognition adalah merangkumi kebolehan seseorang, merancang (planning), memantau (monitoring). Dan menilai (assessing) satu-satunya keputusan atau idea yang hendak diutarakan “Boyer menjelaskan bahawa ‘metacognatinion’ terletak di luar kebolehan berfikir (cognition) itu sendiri. Menurutnya “ Metacognative operations are applied to the strategies and skill used to produce meaning rather then diretctly to data and experience. Metacognation seeks to control these meaning-making aperations by which one seeks to make meaning”. Dengan ini ini metacognition dapatlah disimpulkan sebagai kebolehan seseorang dalam mengaplikasikan startegi yang betul dalam proses melahirkan idea tetapi bukannya buah fikiran yang dilahirkan atau bukan hasil sebenar berfikit itu sendiri. Seseorang yang ingin menyelesaikan satu masalah ekonominya terpaksa mengalami proses merancang , memantau, menilai keputusan yang akan dibuat. Proses merancang, memantau dan menilai ini ada kaitan langsung dengan keputusan yang akan dibuat atau diambil dalam penyelasaian masalah tersebut.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Terdapat kebaikkan dalam mengaplikasikan Matacognitive: 1. Kaedah perbincangan Dalam aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran di dalam kelas terdapat banyak topic sesuai disampaikan melalui sesi perbincangan khasnya bagi kursus bahasa. Di antara topik-topik yang sesuai dibincangkan topic isu semasa, program pelajar dan sebagainya. Kaedah ini melibatkan aktiviti perbualan di antara guru dan pelajar-pelajar dalam kelas atau satu jenis aktiviti pembelajaran secara bertukar-tukar fikiran atau idea serta berkongsi maklumat tentang sesuatu perkara. Para pelajar harus diberitahu cara-cara dan peraturan-peraturan perbincangan terlebih dahulu. Ini bertujuaan agar aktiviti perbincangan lancer, teratur dan tidak terpesong daripada tujuan. Pada akhir perbincangan, idea-idea haruslah dirumuskan. Rumusan ini kan digunakan untuk membuat ulasan perbincangan.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">2. Proses pembelajaran melalui proses pemerhatian dan pemodelan Bandura (1986) mengenal pasti empat unsure utama dalam proses pembelajaran melalui pemerhatian atau pemodelan, iaitu pemerhatian (attention), mengingati (retention), re,produksi (reproduction), dan penangguhan (re inforcement) motivasi (motivion). Implikasi daripada kaedah ini keberkesanan pembelajaran dan pengajaran dapat dicapai melalui beberapa cara yang berikut: • Penyampaian harus cekap dan menarik • Demonstasi guru hendaklah jelas, menarik, mudah dan tepat • Hasilan guru atau contoh-contoh seperti ditunjukkan hendaklah mempunyai mutu yang tinggi</div><div style="text-align: justify;">3. Pembelajaran, ingatan, dan lupaan Pembelajaran merupakan sesuatu proses psikologikal dalaman. Sama ada ia belaku tidak akan dapat diperhatikan atau diukur secara langsung. Apa yang kita ukur ialah ingatan selepas pembelajaran sahaja. Oleh itu, ingatan hanya boleh dianggap gambaran atau praktikal pembelajaran. Walaupun, ingatan boleh mewakili pembelajaran, kualiti ingatan dan lupaan ialah tiga proses yang saling berkaitan serta saling berpengaruhi antara satu sama lain. Berikut mengilustrasikan secara ringkas peringkat-peringkat perkaitan pembelajaran, ingatan dan lupaan. Rajah 1: peringkat-peringkat perkaitan pembelajaran, ingatan dan lupaan.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Berdasarkan huraian-huraian pengertian ingatan di atas maka bolehlah dirumuskan bahawa ingatan merupakan proses kebolehan manusia untuk menerima maklumat, memproses dan menyimpanya dalam otak, kemudian mengeluarkannya ketika perlu.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Berdasarkan daripada tiga kaedah penyampaian yang digunakan tadi, proses pembelajaran dan pengajaran yang dilaksanakan akan lebih terancang dan berkesan.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Apabila guru menggunakan kaedah ini untuk proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran secara tidak lansung akan meningkatkan kemahiran pelajar dalam pangajaran dan pembelajaran.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Dalam suasana pengajaran dan pembelajaran, kemahiran-kemahiran bermaksud seseorang itu terlatih dan mempunyai pengalaman yang tinggi serta mendalam. Dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran kebolehan menguasai kemahiran tertentu harus ditegaskan oleh guru, terutama kemahiran asas seperti menyelesaikan masalah, kemahiran berfikir secara kritis dan kreatif, kemahiran mendengar, bertutur, kemahiran membaca dan menulis dan sebagainya. Apabila pelajar menguasai kemahiran asas ini akan dapat membantu pelajar tersebut menguasai bidang-bidang ilmu yang lain dengan lebih mudah.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Pengertian Pembelajaran</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Belajar</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> adalah proses perubahan perilaku secara aktif, proses mereaksi terhadap semua situasi yang ada di sekitar individu, proses yang diarahkan pada suatu tujuan, proses berbuat melalui berbagai pengalaman, proses melihat, mengamati, dan memahami sesuatu yang dipelajari.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sedangkan <b>mengajar</b> sendiri memiliki pengertian :</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">·</span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Upaya guru untuk “membangkitkan” yang berarti menyebabkan atau mendorong seseorang (siswa) belajar. (Rochman Nata Wijaya,1992)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">·</span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Menciptakan lingkungan yang memungkinkan terjdinya proses belajar. (Hasibuan J.J,1992)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">·</span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Suatu usaha untuk membuat siswa belajar, yaitu usaha untuk terjadinya perubahan tingkah laku. (Gagne)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dan<b> Pembelajaran</b> yang diidentikkan dengan kata “mengajar” berasal dari kata dasar “ajar” yang berarti petunjuk yang diberikan kepada orang supaya diketahui (diturut) ditambah dengan awalan “pe” dan akhiran “an menjadi “pembelajaran”, yang berarti proses, perbuatan, cara mengajar atau mengajarkan sehingga anak didik mau belajar. (KBBI)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pembelajaran</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> adalah proses interaksi </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peserta_didik" title="Peserta didik"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">peserta didik</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> dengan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pendidik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Pendidik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pendidik</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> dan sumber belajar pada suatu lingkungan belajar. Pembelajaran merupakan bantuan yang diberikan pendidik agar dapat terjadi proses pemerolehan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu" title="Ilmu"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ilmu</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> dan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengetahuan" title="Pengetahuan"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pengetahuan</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, penguasaan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kemahiran&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Kemahiran (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">kemahiran</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> dan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tabiat&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Tabiat (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">tabiat</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, serta pembentukan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikap" title="Sikap"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">sikap</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> dan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepercayaan" title="Kepercayaan"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">kepercayaan</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> pada peserta didik. Dengan kata lain, pembelajaran adalah proses untuk membantu peserta didik agar dapat </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belajar" title="Belajar"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">belajar</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> dengan baik. (Wikipedia.com)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Proses pembelajaran dialami sepanjang hayat seorang </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manusia" title="Manusia"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">manusia</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> serta dapat berlaku di manapun dan kapanpun. Pembelajaran mempunyai pengertian yang mirip dengan pengajaran, walaupun mempunyai </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konotasi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Konotasi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">konotasi</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> yang berbeda. Dalam konteks </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendidikan" title="Pendidikan"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pendidikan</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guru" title="Guru"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">guru</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> mengajar supaya peserta didik dapat belajar dan menguasai isi pelajaran hingga mencapai sesuatu objektif yang ditentukan (aspek kognitif), juga dapat mempengaruhi perubahan sikap (aspek afektif), serta keterampilan (aspek psikomotor) seseorang peserta didik. Pengajaran memberi kesan hanya sebagai pekerjaan satu pihak, yaitu pekerjaan guru saja. Sedangkan pembelajaran juga menyiratkan adanya interaksi antara guru dengan peserta didik.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Instruction atau pembelajaran</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> adalah suatu sistem yang bertujuan untuk membantu proses belajar siswa, yang berisi serangkaian peristiwa yang dirancang, disusun sedemikian rupa untuk mempengaruhi dan mendukung terjadinya proses belajar siswa yang bersifat internal.<b> Gagne dan Briggs (1979:3)</b><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="ES-AR" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: ES-AR; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pembelajaran </span></b><span lang="ES-AR" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: ES-AR; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">adalah Proses interaksi peserta didik dengan pendidik dan sumber belajar pada suatu lingkungan belajar. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(UU No. 20/2003, Bab I Pasal Ayat 20)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Istilah “pembelajaran” sama dengan “instruction atau “pengajaran”. <b>Pengajaran</b> mempunyai arti cara mengajar atau mengajarkan. (Purwadinata, 1967, hal 22). Dengan demikian pengajaran diartikan sama dengan perbuatan belajar (oleh siswa) dan Mengajar (oleh guru). Kegiatan belajar mengajar adalah satu kesatuan dari dua kegiatan yang searah. Kegiatan belajar adalah kegiatan primer, sedangkan mengajar adalah kegiatan sekunder yang dimaksudkan agar terjadi kegiatan secara optimal.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dan dapat ditarik kesimpulan bahwa <b>Pembelajaran</b> adalah usaha sadar dari guru untuk membuat siswa belajar, yaitu terjadinya perubahan tingkah laku pada diri siswa yang belajar, dimana perubahan itu dengan didapatkannya kemampuan baru yang berlaku dalam waktu yang relative lama dan karena adanya usaha.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dengan demikian dapat diketahui bahwa kegiatan pembelajaran merupakan kegiatan yang melibatkan beberapa komponen :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Siswa<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Seorang yang bertindak sebagai pencari, penerima, dan penyimpan isi pelajaran yang dibutuhkan untuk mencapai tujuan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Guru<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Seseorang yang bertindak sebagai pengelola, katalisator, dan peran lainnya yang memungkinkan berlangsungnya kegiatan belajar mengajar yang efektif.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tujuan<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pernyataan tentang perubahan perilaku (kognitif, psikomotorik, afektif) yang diinginkan terjadi pada siswa setelah mengikuti kegiatan pembelajaran.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Isi Pelajaran<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Segala informasi berupa fakta, prinsip, dan konsep yang diperlukan untuk mencapai tujuan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Metode<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cara yang teratur untuk memberikan kesempatan kepada siswa untuk mendapat informasi yang dibutuhkan mereka untuk mencapai tujuan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Media<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bahan pengajaran dengan atau tanpa peralatan yang digunakan untuk menyajikan informasi kepada siswa.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Evaluasi<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cara tertentu yang digunakan untuk menilai suatu proses dan hasilnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Teori-Teori Pembelajaran</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Berhavioristik</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pembelajaran selalu memberi stimulus kepada siswa agar menimbulkan respon yang tepat seperti yang kita inginkan. Hubunagn stimulus dan respons ini bila diulang kan menjadi sebuah kebiasaan.selanjutnya, bila siswa menemukan kesulitan atau msalah, guru menyuruhnya untuk mencoba dan mencoba lagi (trial and error) sehingga akhirnya diperoleh hasil.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">B.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kognitivisme</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pembelajaran adalah dengan mengaktifkan indera siswa agar memeperoleh pemahaman sedangkan pengaktifan indera dapat dilaksanakan dengan jalan menggunakan media/alat Bantu. Disamping itu penyampaian pengajaran dengan berbagai variasi artinya menggunakan banyak metode.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Humanistic</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dalam pembelajran ini guru sebagai pembimbing memberi pengarahan agar siswa dapat mengaktualisasikan dirinya sendiri sebagai manusia yang unik untuk mewujudkan potensi-potensi yang ada dalam dirinya sendiri. Dan siswa perlu melakukan sendiri berdasarkan inisisatif sendiri yang melibatkan pribadinya secara utuh (perasaan maupun intelektual) dalam proses belajar, agar dapat memperoleh hasil.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">D.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sosial/Pemerhatian/permodelan</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span lang="MS" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: MS; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Proses pembelajaran melalui proses pemerhatian dan pemodelan Bandura (1986) mengenal pasti empat unsure utama dalam proses pembelajaran melalui pemerhatian atau pemodelan, iaitu pemerhatian (attention), mengingat (retention), reproduksi (reproduction), dan penangguhan (reinforcement) motivasi (motivion). Implikasi daripada kaedah ini berpendapat pembelajaran dan pengajaran dapat dicapai melalui beberapa cara yang berikut: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span lang="MS" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: MS; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">• Penyampaian harus interktif dan menarik </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span lang="MS" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: MS; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">• Demonstasi guru hendaklah jelas, menarik, mudah dan tepat </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span lang="MS" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: MS; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">• Hasilan guru atau contoh-contoh seperti ditunjukkan hendaklah mempunyai mutu yang tinggi.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="MS" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: MS; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Ciri-ciri Pembelajaran</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Menurut Eggen & Kauchak (1998)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Menjelaskan bahwa ada enam ciri pembelajaran yang efektif, yaitu:<b> </b><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">siswa menjadi pengkaji yang aktif terhadap lingkungannya melalui mengobservasi, membandingkan, menemukan kesamaan-kesamaan dan perbedaan-perbedaan serta membentuk konsep dan generalisasi berdasarkan kesamaan-kesamaan yang ditemukan,<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">guru menyediakan materi sebagai fokus berpikir dan berinteraksi dalam pelajaran,<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(3)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> aktivitas-aktivitas siswa sepenuhnya didasarkan pada pengkajian,<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(4)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> guru secara aktif terlibat dalam pemberian arahan dan tuntunan kepada siswa dalam menganalisis informasi,<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(5) </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">orientasi pembelajaran penguasaan isi pelajaran dan pengembangan keterampilan berpikir, serta<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(6)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> guru menggunakan teknik mengajar yang bervariasi sesuai dengan tujuan dan gaya mengajar guru.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Adapun ciri-ciri pembelajaran yang menganut unsur-unsur dinamis dalam proses belajar siswa sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">·</span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Motivasi belajar<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Motivasi dapat dikatakan sebagai serangkaina usaha untuk menyediakan kondisi kondisi tertentu, sehingga seseorang itu mau dan ingin melakukan sesuatau, dan bila ia tidak suka, maka ia akan berusaha mengelakkan perasaan tidak suka itu. </span><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IT; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jadi, motivasi dapat dirangsang dari luar, tetapi motivasi itu tumbuh di dalam diri seseorang. Adalam kegiatan belajar, maka motivasi dapat dikatakan sebagai keseluruhan daya penggerak di dalam diri seseorang/siswa yang menimbulkan kegiatan belajar, yang menjalin kelangsungan dan memberikan arah pada kegiatan belajar sehingga tujuan yang dihendaki dapat dicapai oleh siswa (Sardiman, A.M. 1992)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">·</span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bahan belajar<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Yakni segala informasi yang berupa fakta, prinsip dan konsep yang diperlukan untuk mencapai tujuan pembelajaran. Selain bahan yang berupa informasi, maka perlu diusahakan isi pengajaran dapat merangsang daya cipta agar menumbuhkan dorongan pada diri siswa untuk memecahkannya sehingga kelas menjadi hidup.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">·</span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Alat Bantu belajar<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Semua alat yang digunakan dalam kegiatan pembelajaran, dengan maksud untuk menyampaikan pesan (informasi)) dari sumber (guru maupun sumber lain) kepada penerima (siswa). Inforamsi yang disampaikan melalui media harus dapat diterima oleh siswa, dengan menggunakan salah satu ataupun gabungan beberaapa alat indera mereka. Sehingga, apabila pengajaran disampaikan dengan bantuan gambar-gambar, foto, grafik, dan sebagainya, dan siswa diberi kesempatan untuk melihat, memegang, meraba, atau mengerjakan sendiri maka memudahkan siswa untuk mengerti pengajaran tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">·</span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Suasana belajar<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Suasana yang dapat menimbulkan aktivitas atau gairah pada siswa adalah apabila terjadi :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">a.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Adanya komunikasi dua arah (antara guru-siswa maupun sebaliknya) yang intim dan hangat, sehingga hubungan guru-siswa yang secara hakiki setara dan dapat berbuat bersama.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">b.Adanya kegairahan dan kegembiraan belajar. Hal ini dapat terjadi apabila isi pelajaran yang disediakan berkesusaian dengan karakteristik siswa.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kegairahan dan kegembiraan belajar jug adapat ditimbulkan dari media, selain isis pelajaran yang disesuaiakan dengan karakteristik siswa, juga didukung oleh factor intern siswa yang belajar yaitu sehat jasmani, ada minat, perhatian, motivasi, dan lain sebagainya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">·</span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kondisi siswa yang belajar<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mengenai kondisi siswa, adapat dikemukakan di sini sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">a.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Siswa memilki sifat yang unik, artinya anatara anak yang satu dengan yang lainnya berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 81.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">b.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kesamaan siwa, yaitu memiliki langkah-langkah perkenbangan, dan memiliki potensi yang perlu diaktualisasikan melalui pembelajaran.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kondisi siswa sendiri sangat dipengaruhi oleh factor intern dan juga factor luar, yaitu segala sesuatau yang ada di luar diri siswa, termasuk situasi pembelajaran yang diciptakan guru. Oleh Karena itu kegiatan pembelajaran lebih menekankan pada peranan dan partisipasi siswa, bukan peran guru yang dominant, tetapi lebih berperan sebagai fasilitaor, motivator, dan pembimbing.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This entry was posted on October 19, 2009 at 7:28 am. You can follow any responses to</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div>hendrasmarthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10478205207072099754noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8484178374113261372.post-59981717283915938412011-07-08T06:56:00.001-07:002011-07-08T06:56:43.386-07:00Materi Kuliah Morphology & Syntax<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://koesnandar1964.wordpress.com/2010/06/12/materi-kuliah-morphology-syntax/" title="Permanent Link to Materi Kuliah Morphology & Syntax">Materi Kuliah Morphology & Syntax</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">June 12, 2010 at 7:23 am | Posted in </span><a href="http://koesnandar1964.wordpress.com/category/uncategorized/" title="View all posts in Uncategorized"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Uncategorized</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> | </span><a href="http://koesnandar1964.wordpress.com/2010/06/12/materi-kuliah-morphology-syntax/#comments" title="Comment on Materi Kuliah Morphology & Syntax"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1 Comment</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Koesnandar</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, 0923385P1, STKIP PGRI SIDOARJO<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Language</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is a system for the communication of meaning through sounds.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Linguistic</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is the scientific study of language.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Language as system consist of three subsystem: Semantic, Sysnantic, Phonological<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Language is a system of symbols. Why?<br />
Each language has different pronunciation.<br />
e.g: Could you tell me where the station is?<br />
/kud yuw tel miy hwer ……./<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Phonology</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is the study the smallest units of speech sounds that make a difference in meaning.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Morphology</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is the study of meaningful form or the smallest meaningful units of language.<br />
There are two basic divisions in morphology :<br />
(1) <i>lexical</i> or <i>derivational morphology</i>; studies word formation which produces new words such as nation — national.<br />
(2) <i>inflectional morphology</i>; studies word formation related to grammatical affixes: prular, past tense and possession.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A <b>word</b> is a unit which is a constituent at the phrase level and above.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A <b>morphene</b> is the smallest unit of language that has meaning. For example Cats has to morphemes- cat (singular) and cats (plural). Uneventful has three morphemes. event, eventful, and uneventful. Each morpheme changes the meaning of the word.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Morphemes are defined as the smallest meaningful elements in a language.<br />
There are two types of morpheme. They are free morpheme and bound morpheme.<br />
<b>Free morpheme</b> is the one that can stand alone such as: cat, dog, horse, car, bike, bus etc.<br />
<b>Bound morpheme</b> is the one that cannot stand alone such as in affixation namely prefix, infix and suffix. Prefixes occur before the base, e.g. (un)tidy, pre(school), (dis)like. Suffixes occur in the middle of the base, e.g. kind(ness), angri(ly), judge(ment), teach(er).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Inflection</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is modification of words in accordance with their forms.<br />
English verbs consists of five forms, namely: infinitive (see), the third singular present (sees), past form (saw), past participle (seen) and gerund or present participle (seeing).<br />
eg.: I love a peaceful life. “love” is a verb.<br />
Love is blue. “love” is a noun.<br />
Do you like love potion? “love” is an adjective.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Analysis of inflections.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
We must determine (1) the patterns of selection, (2) the arrangement of inflected elements and (3) any modifications involved.<br />
<i>Selection</i> means parts of speech. These are classified by word patterns of inflection.<br />
e.g: The verb “live” (regular) and “give” (irregular).<br />
“live” is inflected by means of suffix: lives [z], lived [d], living [iŋ] while “give” is inflected by means of patterns underlying forms, namely irregular verbs. give, gives, gave, given, giving.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Derivation</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is the process of adding derivational morphemes, which create a new word from existing words, sometimes by simply changing grammatical category (for example, changing a noun to a verb).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Paradigmatic</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
A dissimilar thing that can be exchanged for the thing of which the value is to be determined<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Syntagmatic</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Similar things that can be compared with the thing of which the value is to be determined<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PARADIGMATIC AND SYNTAGMATI</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">C. Contrasting terms in (structural) LINGUISTICS. Every item of language has a paradigmatic relationship with every other item which can be substituted for it (such as cat with dog), and a syntagmatic relationship with items which occur within the same construction (for example, in The cat sat on the mat, cat with the and sat on the mat). The relationships are like axes, as shown in the accompanying diagram.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">syntagmatic<br />
The cat sat on the mat.<br />
paradigmatic His dog slept under that table.<br />
Our parrot perched in its cage.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Paradigmatic contrasts at the level of sounds allow one to identify the phonemes (minimal distinctive sound units) of a language: for example, bat, fat, mat contrast with one another on the basis of a single sound, as do bat, bet, bit, and bat, bap, ban. Stylistically, rhyme is due to the paradigmatic substitution of sounds at the beginning of syllables or words, as in: ‘Tyger! Tyger! burning bright / In the forests of the night.’<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">On the lexical level, paradigmatic contrasts indicate which words are likely to belong to the same word class (part of speech): cat, dog, parrot in the diagram are all nouns, sat, slept, perched are all verbs. Syntagmatic relations between words enable one to build up a picture of co-occurrence restrictions within SYNTAX, for example, the verbs hit, kick have to be followed by a noun (Paul hit the wall, not *Paul hit), but sleep, doze do not normally do so (Peter slept, not *Peter slept the bed). On the semantic level, paradigmatic substitutions allow items from a semantic set to be grouped together, for example Angela came on Tuesday (Wednesday, Thursday, etc.), while syntagmatic associations indicate compatible combinations: rotten apple, the duck quacked, rather than *curdled apple, *the duck squeaked.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PARTS OF SPEECH: WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORDS? </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
a. Verb : swim : swims, swam, swum, swimming<br />
b. Noun : chair : chairman, head : headmaster; cloud : cloudy<br />
c. Pronoun : I : me/my/mine; we : our/ours/us<br />
d. Adjective : happy : happily/happiness/happier/happiest<br />
d. Adverb<br />
e. Preposition<br />
f. Conjunction<br />
g. Interjection <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Syntax</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: The study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Syntactics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: Science which studies the elements of sentence structure and interrelationshios with the rules governing the arrangement of sentences in sequences.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Affixation</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is the process of attaching an inflection or, more generally, a bound morpheme to a word. This can occur at the beginning or end and occasionally in the middle of a word form.<br />
Affixes are classified into three types:<br />
(1) <i>Prefixes</i>: Those which are added to the beginning of root or stem such as “unhappy”<br />
(2) <i>Infixes</i>: Those which occur within a root/stem. They are not commonly found in European languages.<br />
(3) <i>Suffixes</i>: Those which follow a root/stem such as “happiness”.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4 level of linguistic analysis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:<br />
• Sound level<br />
• Morphological level<br />
• Syntactic level<br />
• Semantic level<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The morphological level of analysis is concerned with meaningful units. These units are called morphemes. It is defined as the smallest meaningful units of grammatical description, since they cannot by analyzed any further at this level. Morphology studies the internal structure of words, that is the ways in which morphemes function as constituents of word structure. For example, the word unconditionally may be said to consist of four morphemes: un – condition – al – ly. Condition is a free morpheme, since it can occur on its own. The other three morphemes are bound, since they must always co-occur with free morphemes. English words consist of one or more free morphemes (book, bookcase, bookshop, bookworm) or of combination of free and bound morphemes (kindness, unkind, kindly, unkindly).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Having established the structure of words at the morphological level, we can go on to examine how words can be put together to form larger grammatical units. Words combine to form larger units called phrases, which, in turn to combine to form sentences. This is the business of syntax to establish the set of rules that specify which combinations of words constitute grammatical strings and which do not.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In short, morpheme is the minimal unit of grammatical description in the sense that it cannot be segmented any further at the grammatical level of analysis. While Syntax is a part of linguistic, this studies rearrangement and interrelationship of word, phrases, clauses, and sentences. In other words, it is the study of how combine words become a larger unit.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Words : The smallest units or the smallest free form.<br />
A group of phoneme/letter that has meaning, e.g. car, book, pen<br />
Phoneme : The smallest meaningful unit, e.g. book /bUk/ 3 phoneme<br />
Phrase : Group of words that doesn’t has S and P but has meaning.<br />
A group of word that has meaning<br />
Clause : Consist of S and V but can not stand alone because it is part of sentence<br />
and has meaning, e.g. what she knows<br />
Sentence : The largest grammatical unit consisting phrase, clause, sentence that used<br />
to express a statement, question and comment.<br />
Consist of S and V, can stand alone and has meaning and sometimes<br />
consist more than one clause, e.g. I wrote a letter yesterday<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There are five signals of syntactic structure</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. word-order—the linear of time sequence in which word appear in an utterance, or the positions of words relative to each other in time.<br />
2. prosody—musical pattern of stress, pitch and juncture in which the words an utterance are spoken, or combination or patterns of pitch, stress and juncture.<br />
3. function word—words with little or no lexical meaning which are used in combining other words into larger structures.<br />
Words largely divide of lexical meaning that used to indicate various functional relationship among the lexical words of an utterance (doesn’t have meaning in grammatical but in lexical), e.g. Does she go there?<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There are nine types of function word:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
• noun determiner; all, twice, one, third, a, an, this, that, these, those, etc.<br />
• auxiliaries; verb, is, am, are, has, have, do, does, did, will<br />
• qualifiers/ compare; fairly, merely, very, pretty, quite, etc.<br />
• preposition; in, on, at, of, over, etc<br />
• conjunction/ coordinator; and, but, nor…or, not only…but also, etc<br />
• interrogator; who, which, what, etc<br />
• includes; when, like, that, whatever, etc<br />
• sentence linkers; consequently, accordingly, however, even though, as a result<br />
• miscellaneous/ interjection<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There are two kinds of meaning</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:<br />
a) <i>lexical meaning</i> : the meaning of morphemes and words considered in isolation (dictionary meaning).<br />
b) <i>Grammatical/structural meaning</i>: the meaning of the way words are combined in larger structures (sentence)<br />
* the word “am” does not has meaning if stand alone, but has meaning if we combine with other words or we put in a sentence.<br />
e.g. I am being interviewed<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. inflection—suffixes, always final, which adapt words to fit varying of structural positions without changing their lexical meaning or part of speech.<br />
Morphemic changes without changing the lexical meaning, e.g. – ed, plural (s/es)<br />
• work — worked (change in the form of word to show a past tense)<br />
• book — books ( to show a plural)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. derivational contrast—derivational prefixes and suffixes which change words from one part of speech to another. In short, addition of the prefixes or suffixes that change the world class.<br />
e.g. manage—management—manager<br />
lead—leader—leadership<br />
test—pre-test<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">morphophoneme</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> – (linguistics) the phonemes (or strings of phonemes) that constitute the various allomorphs of a morpheme.<br />
Eg. imperfect = in + perfect<br />
Irregular = in + regular<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">linguistics</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> – the scientific study of language<br />
<b>allomorph</b> – a variant phonological representation of a morpheme; “the final sounds of `bets’ and `beds’ and `horses’ and `oxen’ are allomorphs of the English plural morpheme”<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Assimilation</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is a common phonological process by which the phonetics of a speech segment becomes more like that of another segment in a word (or at a word boundary). A common example of assimilation would be “don’t be silly” where the /n/ and /t/ in “don’t” are assimilated to /m/ and /p/ by the following /b/, where said naturally in many accents and discourse styles (“dombe silly”).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Progressive assimilation</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">; changes with reference to a preceding segment are traditionally.<br />
<i>Regresive assimilation</i>; if a sound changes with reference to a following segment.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dissimilation</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">; opposite of assimilation; is the change of one or more sounds to be articulated like another sound or is a phenomenom whereby similar consonant or vowel sound in a word become less similar.<br />
e.g. turtle tur-tur<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Branches of phonetic study</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:<br />
1. <i>Articulation phonetics</i>: The study of the way speech sounds are made by vocal organ.<br />
2. <i>Acoustic phonetics</i>: The study of speech sounds related to physical properties as transmitted between mouth and ear.<br />
3. <i>Auditory phonetics</i>: The study of speech sounds based on the perceptual response of auditory nerve and brain: using physical apparatus such as devices for measuring airflow or for analyzing sound waves.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Stress</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: The use of significant intensity in speech.<br />
e.g: naturally (naetserlly)<br />
nat surely will come (naet serliy el kem)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pitch</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: Intonation which gives contribution to meaning varieties of the sentence.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Timing</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: Juncture (the type of connection or pause we get between syllables or words)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Definition of sentence</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:<br />
<b>A sentence</b> is sequence of selected syntactic items combined into a unit in accordance with certain patterns of arrangement, modification, and intonation in any given language.<br />
<b>A sentence</b> is any string of morphemes ending with a final intonation pattern.<br />
To provide the means for analyzing sentences or any other syntactic entities, two terms are used: construction and constituent. <b>A construction</b> is any complete group of words or morphemes. <b>A constituent</b> is a morphemes, a combination of morphemes, or a construction that is a component of a construction.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Basic elements of the sentence</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<br />
Subject + Predicate. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Subject</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:<br />
The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or being something. You can find the subject of a sentence if you can find the verb. Ask the question, "Who or what ‘verbs’ or ‘verbed’?" and the answer to that question is the subject. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Predicate</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:<br />
A predicate is the completer of a sentence. The subject names the "do-er" or "be-er“ of the sentence; the predicate does the rest of the work. A simple predicate consists of only a verb, verb string, or compound verb:<br />
- The glacier melted.<br />
- The glacier has been melting.<br />
- The glacier melted, broke apart, and slipped into the sea.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Coordination (conjoining)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is one of the basic syntactic devices from which parallel entities are arrangeed side by side.<br />
e.g: John takes cream. John takes sugar.<br />
The two sentences above can be coordinated into : John takes cream and sugar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Subordination (embedding)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is combining two sentences into one sentence by using English relatives and subordinating conjuction.<br />
e.g: John, who likes sugar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Endocentric construction</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is one in which the primary constituent(s) are comparable to the complete construction.<br />
e.g: Good old John. John and Mary<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Exocentric construction</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> is one in which the primary constituent(s) do not function like the complete construction.<br />
e.g: in the house<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Substitution (pro-form)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, stand for the central entities of basic patterns.<br />
As substitutes <i>for nouns</i>: John likes cream. He likes cream. He likes it.<br />
Substitutes may also be used <i>for verbs</i>: He likes coffee and she does too.<br />
<i>Modals </i>are also widely used as substitutes: He’ll take coffee and so will she.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Entities used as substitutes generally fall into the set of items known as <b>function words</b>. These convey relationships among the <b>content words</b>, such as nouns and verbs, in a language. Examples of function words are auxiliaries, conjunctions, determiners, interjections, postpositions, prepositions and relatives.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Concord</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, or <b>congruence</b>, is the agreement in form of one word with an other. For example, ‘this’ must be modified to ‘these’ before plurals, as in ‘this tie’, ‘these ties’.<br />
<b>Government </b>is the determination of one from by another. For example, ‘her’ rather than ‘she’ is required in ‘He saw her’ and ‘to her’.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The two basic favorite sentence types of English, verb sentence and BE sentence.<br />
<b>Verb sentence</b>:<br />
- They came. N1 V<br />
- They became friends. N1 V N(1)<br />
- They saw her. N1 V N2<br />
- They gave her candy. N1 V N2 N3<br />
- They elected her mayor. N1 V N2 N(2)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BE sentence</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:<br />
- It is cold. N BE Adj<br />
- It is here. N BE Adv<br />
- It is Jack. N BE N<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Intransitive verbs</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> that do not require a following noun or adjective.<br />
<b>Transitive verbs</b> are subdivided here into two large groups, one of which requires only an object, the other an object plus a noun or a pronoun and those that do. Some grammars call verbs like ‘become’ and ‘seem’ <b>linking verbs.</b><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Overt selection classes</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, the subject performs an action affecting the object, whereas in ‘I saw her’, there is no such effect.<br />
<b>Covert selection classes</b>, the relationship expressed by verbs like ‘stop’ is hidden in ‘They stopped the car’, with the former object as subject: ‘The car stopped’.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Subclasses of English function words</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> are often specified according to gross sets: those used with verbs as auxiliaries and those used nouns as determiners and prepostions.<br />
e.g: ‘His car broke down’ and ‘His broke down’.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Subclasses of English noun</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<br />
The use of determiners, in turn, permits subclassification of nouns. Proper nouns may be distinguished from common nouns by the impossibility of placing determiners before proper nouns. For example, ‘Jack’ is a proper noun in ‘Jack dealt the cards’ but not in ‘He dealt a jack to each of the players’.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Some eggs –> count nouns<br />
Some sugar –> mass nouns<br />
They moved last week –> ‘move’ is intranstive verb<br />
They moved the last house on the block –> ‘move’ is transitive<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Expansion of the verb phrase</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:<br />
They may give her candy.<br />
They have given her candy.<br />
They are giving her candy.<br />
They may have given her candy.<br />
They may be giving her candy.<br />
They have been giving her candy.<br />
They may have been giving her candy.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Expansion of the noun phrase</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:<br />
their old neighbors<br />
their fine old neighbors<br />
their fine old retired neighbors<br />
their many fine old retired neighbors<br />
all their fine old retired neighbors<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Alterations of simple sentences</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">:<br />
1. <b>Question</b><br />
- with change of intonation, for example, ‘He came?’<br />
- with wh-words, for example, ‘Who came?’<br />
- with auxiliaries or do, for example, ‘May he come?’ or ‘Did he come?’<br />
2. <b>Negative</b><br />
They didn’t come.<br />
3. <b>Emphatics</b><br />
They came<br />
4. <b>Requests</b><br />
Will you come?<br />
5. <b>Passives</b><br />
She was seen by him<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Compound sentences</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">; the clauses so modified are referred to as coordinate and subordinate clauses, and the resulting sentences.<br />
Example: They came and saw her. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><br />
</div><h1><a href="http://kbpe1005.blogspot.com/2010/02/materi-3-syntax-semantic-grammar.html">Materi 3 - Syntax, Semantic & Grammar</a> </h1><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif";">Bahasa pemrograman merupakan notasi formal dan mempunyai 2 komponen utama<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><i><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif";">Syntax dan Semantic</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif";">Syntax<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif";">kumpulan aturan formal yang menspesifikasikan komposisi suatu program yang terdiri dari huruf.,angka & karakter yang lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="color: white; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt;">Design Bahasa Pemrogramann</span></b><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Abstraction </span></i><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">=> kemampuan untuk mengkonstruksi suatu pola yang berulang-ulang. Misalnya: subprosedure.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Simplycity</span></i><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> => berarti kesederhanaan. Semakin sedikit konsep untuk dapat dimengerti,berarti semakin baik.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Regularity</span></i><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> =>keteraturan. Semakin sedikit melanggar aturan berarti semakin baik.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Konsistensi</span></i><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> => ketetapan suatu alur atau bentuk bahasa<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Translation</span></i><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> => penerjemah yang cepat & menghasilkan kode tujuan yang efisien.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><h3><a href="http://kbp11005.blogspot.com/2010/03/criteria-syntax.html">Materi 3 - SYNTAX</a> </h3><div class="postmeta"><span class="post-author">Diposkan oleh </span><span class="fn"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">KBP</span></span><span class="post-author"> </span><span class="post-date">Selasa, 23 Maret 2010 </span><span class="post-timestamp"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">di </span></span><a href="http://kbp11005.blogspot.com/2010/03/criteria-syntax.html" title="permanent link">10:52</a><span class="post-timestamp"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">Readability (mudah dibaca)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">Writeability (mudah untuk ditulis)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">Verifiability (verifikasi program (konsep kebenaran)).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">Kemudahan Translasi atau Mudah bagi manusia, bagi bahasa yang sulit di translasi.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">Pengurangan Ambiguitas atau memilki dua arti atau bahkan lebih.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">Misalnya: A(i) (array atau pemanggilan fungsi).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">Ciri Syntax </div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in;">Kumpulan aturan yang mendefinisikan suatu bentuk bahasa</li>
</ul><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in;">Syntax mendefinisikan bagaimana suatu kalimat dibentuk sebagai barisan/urutan dari pemilihan suatu kata dasar </li>
</ul><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .5in;">Kata dikonstruksikan dengan karakter-karakter alfabet</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .5in;">Contoh keyword (reserve word) dalam bahasa C while, do, if, else, dll </li>
</ul><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list .5in;">Syntax mengatur cara mengkombinasikan kata-kata tersebut ke dalamsuatu statement dengan bentuk yang benar sehingga dapat disusunsuatu program yang dapat berjalan dengan benar </li>
</ul><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list .5in;">Syntax tidak mengerti arti atau isi dari suatu kalimat, semantic yang bisamengartikannya </li>
</ul><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list .5in;">Syntax menyediakan bentuk-bentuk notasi untuk kominikasi antara programmer dan pemroses bahasa pemrograman, sehingga mempermudah pembuatan suatu program<o:p></o:p></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">2 Kumpulan Aturan Syntax</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">Lexical</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">menspesifikasikan kumpulan karakter yang terdapat dalam alphabet dari bahasa dan cara supaya karakter-karakter tersebut dikombinasikan ke dalam kata-kata yang valid dan diterima</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">Syntactic </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">elemen-elemen yang mengatur bentuk suatu statement-statement dalam bahasa pemrograman.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><i>Semantic</i> </div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list .5in;">Mendefinisikan arti dari program yang benar secara syntax dari bahasa tersebut</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list .5in;">int nilai [10]</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list .5in;">Semantic akan menentukan deklarasi diatas dan menyebabkan ruang sebanyak 10 elemen integer yang diberikan kepada variabel nilai</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list .5in;">if (a>b) max = a else max = b;</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list .5in;">Ekspresi a>b harus dievaluasi terlebih dahulu , tergantung dari nilai ini satu dari dua statement di belakangnya akan dieksekusi </li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">Elemen-elemen Syntactic</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black;">• Himpunan Karakter<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">• ASCII - Karakter angka dan huruf</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">• Identifier</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black;">• Umumnya string dari huruf dan angka<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black;">• Simbol untuk operator<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">• Simbol matematika</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black;">• Keyword dan Reserved Word<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">• Kata-kata milik bahasa, biasanya tidak boleh</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">digunakan sebagai identifier</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black;">Grammar<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">•Suatu kumpulan aturan (production) yang</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">menentukan urut-urutan karakter</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black;">•Suatu formal grammar adalah grammar biasa<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black;">yang ditentukan dengan menggunakan notasi<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black;">yang ketat<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">•Ada dua kelas grammar yang berguna untuk</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">teknologi compiler</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: black;">•EBNF Grammar<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">•Regular Grammar</div><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">Grammar is one of the most important parts that we need to master when studying English. Therefore, we - the staff of Englishland -have provided a number of exercises that you can practice in order to communicate, or speak and write using good and correct English sentences. A lot of English learners, especially from basic to pre-intermediate levels complain that English grammar is difficult. As a matter of fact, it is not. If we want to do the exercises of each grammar lesson from basic level and move up to more difficult ones, little by little we will be able to understand the rules and apply them in our daily conversation and written communication. English learners need to be patient and persistent in answering every question that we have added in various grammar lessons or exercises in this website. <br />
In addition to learning various lessons in these web-pages, we encourage students to have grammar books. The followings are the books that we recommend:</div><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b>English Grammar in Use</b> - A reference and practice book for intermediate students. This book was written by Raymond Murphy. It has been used as a self study guide by millions of students around the world. The book is more suitable for intermediate and more advanced students. </div><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b>Essential Grammar in Use</b> - A self-study reference and practice book for elementary students of English. This book was also written by Mr. Murphy. If you cannot find these grammar books then there are other books which I can recommend and I hope that they are available at the nearest bookstore in your city </div><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b>Understanding and Using English Grammar</b> </div><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b>Basic English Grammar</b> </div><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">Books number 3 and 4 were written by Betty Schramper Azar. The former is meant to be used by intermediate through advanced ESL students and the latter is more suitable for beginning English learners. Most of the above exercises have been equipped with answers. After answering the questions, you will immediately know how many correct and wrong answers you have made including your score. We will try to add more grammar lessons in the near future. Besides buying the grammar books, we recommend that each English buy a good dictionary. One that is published by Longman or Oxford University Press. A good dictionary has words whose pronunciations are explained using international phonetic symbols. Although learning English from this Englishland's website can significantly improve your communicative skills, we feel that it is not enough. Therefore we encourage every learner to take course programs provided by various language course institutions both in their cities or from the internet. The minimum level that a learner has to reach is intermediate. After that he can learn by himself using various sources such as having regular conversation with native English speakers in their towns or cities, joining English clubs or watching BBC, VOA and other TV stations that use English in their programs. by Charles Roring</div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><a href="http://www.belajaringgris.net/"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Home</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></li>
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Full Conversation <span style="color: #ff6600;">Tanpa Grammar</span><br />
4 bln Lulus, Bersertifikat>> </span><a href="http://www.belajaringgris.net/go/txtnogrammar/"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Detail</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><a href="http://www.belajaringgris.net/go/txtnogrammar/"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Belajar Inggris Kilat</span></b></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
TANPA keluar rumah TANPA grammar<br />
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di download <span style="color: #ff6600;">30.000+</span> orang>> </span><a href="http://www.belajaringgris.net/go/txtnogrammar/"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Detail</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tense bahasa inggris terakhir ini digunakan untuk mengungkapkan kejadian yang akan sudah sedang terjadi pada masa lalu. Past future perfect continuous tense memiliki persamaan dengan future perfect continuous tense.<br />
Rumus<br />
Positif (+)<br />
Subject + should/would + have + been + verb-ing + object<br />
Negatif (-)<br />
Subject + should/would + not + have + been + verb-ing + object<br />
Tanya (?)<br />
Should/would + subject + have + been + verb-ing + object ?<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Contoh – Past Future Perfect Continuous tense :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I would have working in leading companies for 10 years (+)<br />
- Aku akan sudah sedang bekerja di perusahaan ternama selama 10 tahun<br />
I would not have working in leading companies for 10 years (-)<br />
- Aku tidak akan sudah sedang bekerja di perusahaan ternama selama 10 tahun<br />
Would you have working in leading companies for 10 years ? (?)<br />
- apakah kamu akan sudah sedang bekerja di perusahaan ternama selama 10 tahun ?<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Berikut latihan Past Future Perfect Continuous tense bahasa inggris. Jika mengalami kesulitan dalam arti kata gunakan kamus bahasa inggris online :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Latihan : terjemahkan kalimat ini kedalam bahasa inggris<br />
1.Sedianya concert itu tengah akan dimulai andaikata artis artis itu datang pada waktunya.<br />
2.Sedianya saya tengah akan tidur andaikata mereka belum datang<br />
3.Andaikata ayah saya telah selesai berbelanja, ibu saya akan memasak makanan itu <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">© 2010, </span><a href="http://www.belajaringgris.net/"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">kursus bahasa inggris cepat</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. All rights reserved. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><br />
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</div><h2>Kumpulan 16 Tenses Bahasa Inggris Lengkap</h2>T E N S E S- T E N S E S<br />
Ini merupakan kupulan dari 16<br />
Tenses rumus beserta contohnya<br />
ada di sini..<br />
A. Simple Present Tenses<br />
Walaupun Present artinya<br />
sekarang tetapi hal ini jangan<br />
ditapsirkan bahwa tindakan<br />
tersebut dilakukan pada saat ini.<br />
Tenses ini digunakan untuk<br />
menyatakan sesuatu yang<br />
bersifat tetap, kebiasaan atau<br />
kebenaran yang hakiki. Karena<br />
sering menyangkut kejadian<br />
diwaktu lamapu, sekarang dan<br />
akan datang, Tenses ini paling<br />
sedikit mempunyai keterangan<br />
waktu tertentu.<br />
Kalimat-kalimat bahasa inggris<br />
umumnya harus mempunyai<br />
subject(s) dan predicate(p).<br />
karena itu semua Tenses akan<br />
dipormulasi seperti itu.<br />
Rumus:<br />
+) Subject + to be + verb I + Main<br />
verb<br />
+) Subject + verbI +(s/es)<br />
Contoh :<br />
* he is handsome<br />
(dia tampan)<br />
* is he handsome?<br />
(apakah dia tampan?)<br />
* he is not handsome<br />
(dia tidak tampan)<br />
Simple Present Tense dipakai<br />
ketika:<br />
• Kejadiannya bersifat umum,<br />
atau<br />
•Terjadi sepanjang waktu, atau<br />
kebiasaan di masa lampau,<br />
sekarang dan masa yang akan<br />
datang, atau<br />
•Kejadiannya tidak hanya terjadi<br />
sekarang, atau<br />
•Bersifat kebenaran umum,<br />
yang orang lain tidak dapat<br />
menyangkal lagi akan<br />
kebenarannya.<br />
B. Present Continuous Tense<br />
Tenses ini digunakan untuk<br />
menyatakan suatu tindakan yang<br />
benar-benar sedang dilakukan<br />
saat ini. Kalimat-kalimat dalam<br />
Tenses ini lebih sering dipakai<br />
dari pada present Tenses.<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + to be (is, am, are) +<br />
kata kerja + ing<br />
Tense ini dipakai untuk<br />
menjelaskan tentang:<br />
•Kejadian yang sedang terjadi<br />
sekarang, atau<br />
•Kejadian yang akan terjadi di<br />
masa yang akan dating<br />
Contoh :<br />
+) She is cooking in the kitchen.<br />
(dia sedang memasak di dapur)<br />
-) She is not cooking in the<br />
kitchen<br />
(dia tidak sedang memasak di<br />
dapur)<br />
?) is she cooking in the kitchen?<br />
(Apakah dia sedang memasak di<br />
dapur?)<br />
C. Present Perfect Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + have + past participle<br />
(Kata Kerja Bentuk ke-3)<br />
Tense ini digunakan untuk:<br />
•Pengalaman<br />
• Perubahan<br />
• Situasi Yang berkelanjutan<br />
Atau untuk menunjukan suatu<br />
peristiwa yang selesai pada<br />
waktu yang singkat (baru<br />
selesai)<br />
Perhatikan contoh-contoh<br />
kalimatnya berikut ini:<br />
+) they have met me<br />
(mereka sudah menemui saya)<br />
?) have they met me?<br />
(apakah mereka sudah menemui<br />
saya?<br />
-) they have not met me<br />
( mereka belum menemui saya)<br />
D. Present Perfect Continuous<br />
Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + have / has + been +<br />
K.Kerja + ing<br />
Kita menggunakan Tense ini<br />
untuk menjelaskan:<br />
•Satu kejadian/kegiatan yang<br />
baru saja berlangsung<br />
•Satu perbuatan yang<br />
berlangsung hingga sekarang<br />
(pada saat bicara masih terjadi)<br />
Perhatikan contoh kalimat<br />
berikut:<br />
+) They have been playing<br />
football<br />
(Mereka telah sedang bermain<br />
sepakbola)<br />
-) They have not been playing<br />
football<br />
(merka telah tidak sedang<br />
bermain sepakbola)<br />
?) have they been playing<br />
football?<br />
( Apakah merka telah sedang<br />
bermain sepakbola?)<br />
E. Simple Past Tense<br />
Rumus Kalimat Positif:<br />
subject + Kata Kerja Bentuk ke – 2<br />
Rumus Kalimat Negatif :<br />
subject + did + not + Kata Kerja<br />
Bentuk ke – 1<br />
Rumus Kalimat Tanya:<br />
Did + subject + Kata Kerja Bentuk<br />
ke – 1<br />
Pengecualian: Ketika Predikat<br />
suatu kalimat bukan kata kerja,<br />
maka pengganti kata kerja<br />
tersebut adalah was (I, she, he, it)<br />
dan were (we, you, they).<br />
Kapan kita memakai Simple Past<br />
Tense?<br />
Kita memakai Tense ini untuk<br />
membicarakan tentang satu<br />
perbuatan yang terjadi di masa<br />
lampau.<br />
Perhatikan contoh kalimat<br />
berikut:<br />
+) They were student last year<br />
(mereka pelajar tahun lalu)<br />
-) they were not student last year<br />
(mereka bukan pelajar tahun<br />
lalu)<br />
?) were they student last year?<br />
(apakah mereka pelajar tahun<br />
lalu?)<br />
F. Past Continuous Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + was, were + Kata Kerja<br />
+ ing<br />
Kapan kita menggunakan Tense<br />
ini?<br />
Tense ini menggambarkan suatu<br />
tindakan atau kejadian pada<br />
waktu tertentu di masa lampau.<br />
Contoh:<br />
+)We were joking.<br />
-) We were not joking<br />
?) Were we joking?<br />
G. Past Perfect Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
had + subject + Kata Kerja Bentuk<br />
ke – 3<br />
Kapan kita menggunakan Past<br />
Perfect Tense?<br />
Tense ini mengekspresikan<br />
tindakan di masa lalu sebelum<br />
tindakan lain terjadi, namun<br />
kejadiannya di masa lampau.<br />
Perhatikan:<br />
+) I had listen the radio when<br />
you come here<br />
(aku sudah mendengar radio<br />
sebelum kamu datang<br />
H. Past Perfect Continuous Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + had + been + Kata Kerja<br />
+ ing<br />
Kapan Kita menggunakan Past<br />
Perfect Continuous Tense?<br />
Tense ini sama pemakaiannya<br />
dengan Past Perfect Tense,<br />
namun mengekspresikan<br />
tindakan-tindakan yang lebih<br />
lama di masa lampau sebelum<br />
tindakan lain terjadi.<br />
Perhatikan:<br />
She had been helping me when<br />
they went to scool<br />
(dia telah sedang membantu<br />
saya ketika mereka telah pergi ke<br />
sekolah)<br />
I. Simple Future Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + WILL/SHALL + Kata Kerja<br />
Bentuk I<br />
Kapan kita mengunakan Simple<br />
Future Tense?<br />
a. Tidak Ada Rencana<br />
Sebelumnya atau Menyatakan<br />
perbuatan/kejadian yang akan<br />
dilakukan pada waktu yang akan<br />
datang<br />
contoh :<br />
• Hold on. I‘ll get a pen.<br />
b. Prediksi<br />
Contoh:<br />
•It will rain tomorrow.<br />
KALIMAT NON-VERBAL<br />
Ketika predikat suatu kalimat<br />
bukan kata kerja, maka gunakan<br />
be untuk menggantikan kata<br />
kerja tersebut.<br />
Contoh:<br />
• I‘ll be in London tomorrow.<br />
Catatan:<br />
Ketika kita mempunyai rencana<br />
atau keinginan untuk melakukan<br />
suatu kegiatan di masa yang<br />
akan datang, maka gunakan be<br />
going to atau Present Continuous<br />
Tense untuk menggantikan will/<br />
shall.<br />
J. Future Continuous Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + WILL + BE + Kata Kerja +<br />
ing<br />
Kapan kita menggunakan Future<br />
Continuous Tense?<br />
Tense ini menggambarkan suatu<br />
tindakan yang akan terjadi di<br />
waktu tertentu di masa yang<br />
akan datang.<br />
Contoh:<br />
He will be teaching me at eight<br />
tomorrow<br />
(dia akan sedang mengajar saya<br />
pada jam delapan besok)<br />
K. Future Perfect Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + WILL + HAVE + Kata<br />
Kerja Bentuk ke 3<br />
Kapan Kita Menggunakan Future<br />
Perfect Tense?<br />
Tense ini kita pakai untuk<br />
menggambarkan suatu kegiatan<br />
yang akan terjadi di masa yang<br />
akan datang sebelum kegiatan<br />
lain terjadi.<br />
Contoh:<br />
They will be tired when they<br />
arrive.<br />
.(mereka akan telah lelah ketika<br />
mereka datang)<br />
L. Future Perfect Continuous<br />
Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
Subject + WILL + HAVE + BEEN +<br />
Kata Kerja I + ing<br />
Kapan kita memakai Future<br />
Perfect Continuous Tense?<br />
Kita menggunakan Tense ini<br />
untuk membicarakan tentang<br />
suatu tindakan/kegiatan yang<br />
panjang sebelum beberapa saat<br />
di masa yang akan datang.<br />
Contoh:<br />
•He will be tired when he<br />
arrives. He will have been<br />
traveling for 24 hours.<br />
M. Past Future Tense<br />
Untuk menyatakan suatu<br />
perbuatan/peristiwa yang akan<br />
terjadi diwaktu lampau<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + WOULD + Kata Kerja<br />
Bentuk I<br />
Contoh :<br />
She would not be at school<br />
tomorrow.<br />
(Dia tidak akan ke sekolah besok)<br />
N. Past Future Continuous Tense<br />
Untuk menyatakan suatu<br />
perbuatan yang sedang terjadi di<br />
waktu lampau.<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + WOULD + BE + Kata<br />
Kerja + ing<br />
Contoh:<br />
We would be having dinner at<br />
home yesterday.<br />
(kita akan sedang makan malam<br />
di rumah kemarin)<br />
O. Past Future Perfect Tense<br />
untuk menyatakan suatu<br />
prbuatan atau peristiwa yang<br />
akan sedang terjadi di waktu<br />
lampau<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + WOULD + HAVE + Kata<br />
Kerja Bentuk ke 3<br />
Contoh:<br />
she would have be finished to<br />
studied if he had not been lazy<br />
(dia akan sudah tamat belajar<br />
jika dia tidak malas)<br />
P. Past Future Perfect Continuous<br />
Tense<br />
Untuk menyatakan suatu<br />
perbuatan/peristiwa yang akan<br />
sedang terjadi di waktu lampau<br />
Rumus:<br />
Subject + WOULD + HAVE + BEEN<br />
+ Kata Kerja I + ing<br />
Contoh:<br />
We would have been waiting<br />
long.<br />
(kita akan sudah sedang<br />
menunggu lama)<br />
KESIMPULAN<br />
Rumus Umum Tense adalah sbb:<br />
No Tenses Rumus<br />
1 Present Simple Tense S + V1 +<br />
dll<br />
2 Present Continuous Tense S +<br />
is, am, are + V-ing + dll<br />
3 Present Perfect Tense S +<br />
have,has + V3 + dll<br />
4 Present Perfect Continuous<br />
Tense S + have, has + been + V-<br />
ing + dll<br />
5 Past Simple Tense S + V2 + dll<br />
6 Past Continuous Tense S + was,<br />
were + V-ing + dll<br />
7 Past Perfect Tense S + had + V3<br />
+ dll<br />
8 Past Perfect Continuous Tense S<br />
+ had + been + V-ing + dll<br />
9 Future Simple Tense S + will +<br />
V1 + dll<br />
10 Future Continuous Tense S +<br />
will + be + V-ing + dll<br />
11 Future Perfect Tense S + will +<br />
have + V3 + dll<br />
12 Future Perfect Continuous<br />
Tense S + will + have + been + V-<br />
ing + dll<br />
13 Past Future Simple Tense S +<br />
would + V1 + dll<br />
14 Past Future Continuous Tense<br />
S + would + be + V-ing + dll<br />
15 Past Future Perfect Tense S +<br />
would + have + V3 + dll<br />
16 Past Future Perfect<br />
Continuous Tense S + would +<br />
have + been + V-ing + dll<br />
<br />
<br />
<h3>Kumpulan 16 tenses </h3><div class="MsoNormal">T E N S E S- T E N S E S<br />
Ini merupakan kupulan dari 16 Tenses rumus beserta contohnya ada di sini..<br />
A. Simple Present Tenses<br />
Walaupun Present artinya sekarang tetapi hal ini jangan ditapsirkan bahwa tindakan tersebut dilakukan pada saat ini. Tenses ini digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang bersifat tetap, kebiasaan atau kebenaran yang hakiki. Karena sering menyangkut kejadian diwaktu lamapu, sekarang dan akan datang, Tenses ini paling sedikit mempunyai keterangan waktu tertentu.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
Kalimat-kalimat bahasa inggris umumnya harus mempunyai subject(s) dan predicate(p). karena itu semua Tenses akan dipormulasi seperti itu.<br />
Rumus:<br />
+) Subject + to be + verb I + Main verb<br />
+) Subject + verbI +(s/es)<br />
Contoh :<br />
* he is handsome<br />
(dia tampan)<br />
* is he handsome?<br />
(apakah dia tampan?)<br />
* he is not handsome<br />
(dia tidak tampan)<br />
Simple Present Tense dipakai ketika:<br />
• Kejadiannya bersifat umum, atau<br />
• Terjadi sepanjang waktu, atau kebiasaan di masa lampau, sekarang dan masa yang akan datang, atau<br />
• Kejadiannya tidak hanya terjadi sekarang, atau<br />
• Bersifat kebenaran umum, yang orang lain tidak dapat menyangkal lagi akan kebenarannya.<br />
<br />
B. Present Continuous Tense<br />
Tenses ini digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu tindakan yang benar-benar sedang dilakukan saat ini. Kalimat-kalimat dalam Tenses ini lebih sering dipakai dari pada present Tenses.<br />
<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + to be (is, am, are) + kata kerja + ing<br />
Tense ini dipakai untuk menjelaskan tentang:<br />
• Kejadian yang sedang terjadi sekarang, atau<br />
• Kejadian yang akan terjadi di masa yang akan dating<br />
Contoh :<br />
+) She is cooking in the kitchen.<br />
(dia sedang memasak di dapur)<br />
-) She is not cooking in the kitchen<br />
(dia tidak sedang memasak di dapur)<br />
?) is she cooking in the kitchen?<br />
(Apakah dia sedang memasak di dapur?)<br />
C. Present Perfect Tense<br />
<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + have + past participle (Kata Kerja Bentuk ke-3)<br />
Tense ini digunakan untuk:<br />
• Pengalaman<br />
• Perubahan<br />
• Situasi Yang berkelanjutan<br />
Atau untuk menunjukan suatu peristiwa yang selesai pada waktu yang singkat (baru selesai)<br />
<br />
Perhatikan contoh-contoh kalimatnya berikut ini:<br />
+) they have met me<br />
(mereka sudah menemui saya)<br />
?) have they met me?<br />
(apakah mereka sudah menemui saya?<br />
-) they have not met me<br />
( mereka belum menemui saya)<br />
<br />
D. Present Perfect Continuous Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + have / has + been + K.Kerja + ing <br />
Kita menggunakan Tense ini untuk menjelaskan:<br />
• Satu kejadian/kegiatan yang baru saja berlangsung<br />
• Satu perbuatan yang berlangsung hingga sekarang (pada saat bicara masih terjadi)<br />
<br />
Perhatikan contoh kalimat berikut:<br />
+) They have been playing football<br />
(Mereka telah sedang bermain sepakbola)<br />
-) They have not been playing football<br />
(merka telah tidak sedang bermain sepakbola)<br />
?) have they been playing football?<br />
( Apakah merka telah sedang bermain sepakbola?)<br />
<br />
E. Simple Past Tense<br />
Rumus Kalimat Positif:<br />
subject + Kata Kerja Bentuk ke - 2 <br />
Rumus Kalimat Negatif :<br />
subject + did + not + Kata Kerja Bentuk ke - 1 <br />
Rumus Kalimat Tanya:<br />
Did + subject + Kata Kerja Bentuk ke - 1 <br />
Pengecualian: Ketika Predikat suatu kalimat bukan kata kerja, maka pengganti kata kerja tersebut adalah was (I, she, he, it) dan were (we, you, they). <br />
<br />
Kapan kita memakai Simple Past Tense?<br />
Kita memakai Tense ini untuk membicarakan tentang satu perbuatan yang terjadi di masa lampau.<br />
Perhatikan contoh kalimat berikut:<br />
+) They were student last year<br />
(mereka pelajar tahun lalu)<br />
-) they were not student last year<br />
(mereka bukan pelajar tahun lalu)<br />
?) were they student last year?<br />
(apakah mereka pelajar tahun lalu?)<br />
<br />
F. Past Continuous Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + was, were + Kata Kerja + ing <br />
Kapan kita menggunakan Tense ini?<br />
Tense ini menggambarkan suatu tindakan atau kejadian pada waktu tertentu di masa lampau. <br />
Contoh:<br />
+)We were joking.<br />
-) We were not joking<br />
?) Were we joking?<br />
<br />
G. Past Perfect Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
had + subject + Kata Kerja Bentuk ke - 3 <br />
Kapan kita menggunakan Past Perfect Tense?<br />
Tense ini mengekspresikan tindakan di masa lalu sebelum tindakan lain terjadi, namun kejadiannya di masa lampau.<br />
<br />
Perhatikan:<br />
+) I had listen the radio when you come here<br />
(aku sudah mendengar radio sebelum kamu datang<br />
<br />
H. Past Perfect Continuous Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + had + been + Kata Kerja + ing <br />
Kapan Kita menggunakan Past Perfect Continuous Tense?<br />
Tense ini sama pemakaiannya dengan Past Perfect Tense, namun mengekspresikan tindakan-tindakan yang lebih lama di masa lampau sebelum tindakan lain terjadi.<br />
<br />
Perhatikan:<br />
She had been helping me when they went to scool<br />
(dia telah sedang membantu saya ketika mereka telah pergi ke sekolah)<br />
<br />
I. Simple Future Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + WILL/SHALL + Kata Kerja Bentuk I <br />
Kapan kita mengunakan Simple Future Tense?<br />
a. Tidak Ada Rencana Sebelumnya atau Menyatakan perbuatan/kejadian yang akan dilakukan pada waktu yang akan datang<br />
contoh :<br />
• Hold on. I‘ll get a pen.<br />
b. Prediksi<br />
Contoh:<br />
• It will rain tomorrow.<br />
KALIMAT NON-VERBAL <br />
Ketika predikat suatu kalimat bukan kata kerja, maka gunakan be untuk menggantikan kata kerja tersebut. <br />
Contoh:<br />
• I‘ll be in London tomorrow.<br />
<br />
Catatan:<br />
Ketika kita mempunyai rencana atau keinginan untuk melakukan suatu kegiatan di masa yang akan datang, maka gunakan be going to atau Present Continuous Tense untuk menggantikan will/shall.<br />
<br />
J. Future Continuous Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + WILL + BE + Kata Kerja + ing <br />
Kapan kita menggunakan Future Continuous Tense?<br />
Tense ini menggambarkan suatu tindakan yang akan terjadi di waktu tertentu di masa yang akan datang. <br />
Contoh:<br />
He will be teaching me at eight tomorrow<br />
(dia akan sedang mengajar saya pada jam delapan besok)<br />
<br />
<br />
K. Future Perfect Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + WILL + HAVE + Kata Kerja Bentuk ke 3 <br />
Kapan Kita Menggunakan Future Perfect Tense?<br />
Tense ini kita pakai untuk menggambarkan suatu kegiatan yang akan terjadi di masa yang akan datang sebelum kegiatan lain terjadi. <br />
Contoh:<br />
They will be tired when they arrive. <br />
.(mereka akan telah lelah ketika mereka datang)<br />
<br />
<br />
L. Future Perfect Continuous Tense<br />
Rumus:<br />
Subject + WILL + HAVE + BEEN + Kata Kerja I + ing <br />
Kapan kita memakai Future Perfect Continuous Tense?<br />
Kita menggunakan Tense ini untuk membicarakan tentang suatu tindakan/kegiatan yang panjang sebelum beberapa saat di masa yang akan datang. Contoh:<br />
• He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been traveling for 24 hours.<br />
<br />
<br />
M. Past Future Tense<br />
Untuk menyatakan suatu perbuatan/peristiwa yang akan terjadi diwaktu lampau<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + WOULD + Kata Kerja Bentuk I <br />
Contoh :<br />
She would not be at school tomorrow.<br />
(Dia tidak akan ke sekolah besok)<br />
<br />
N. Past Future Continuous Tense<br />
Untuk menyatakan suatu perbuatan yang sedang terjadi di waktu lampau.<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + WOULD + BE + Kata Kerja + ing <br />
Contoh:<br />
We would be having dinner at home yesterday. <br />
(kita akan sedang makan malam di rumah kemarin)<br />
<br />
<br />
O. Past Future Perfect Tense<br />
untuk menyatakan suatu prbuatan atau peristiwa yang akan sedang terjadi di waktu lampau<br />
Rumus:<br />
subject + WOULD + HAVE + Kata Kerja Bentuk ke 3 <br />
Contoh:<br />
she would have be finished to studied if he had not been lazy<br />
(dia akan sudah tamat belajar jika dia tidak malas)<br />
<br />
<br />
P. Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense<br />
Untuk menyatakan suatu perbuatan/peristiwa yang akan sedang terjadi di waktu lampau<br />
Rumus:<br />
Subject + WOULD + HAVE + BEEN + Kata Kerja I + ing <br />
Contoh:<br />
We would have been waiting long.<br />
(kita akan sudah sedang menunggu lama)<br />
<br />
KESIMPULAN<br />
Rumus Umum Tense adalah sbb:<br />
No Tenses Rumus<br />
1 Present Simple Tense S + V1 + dll<br />
2 Present Continuous Tense S + is, am, are + V-ing + dll<br />
3 Present Perfect Tense S + have,has + V3 + dll<br />
4 Present Perfect Continuous Tense S + have, has + been + V-ing + dll<br />
5 Past Simple Tense S + V2 + dll<br />
6 Past Continuous Tense S + was, were + V-ing + dll<br />
7 Past Perfect Tense S + had + V3 + dll<br />
8 Past Perfect Continuous Tense S + had + been + V-ing + dll<br />
9 Future Simple Tense S + will + V1 + dll<br />
10 Future Continuous Tense S + will + be + V-ing + dll<br />
11 Future Perfect Tense S + will + have + V3 + dll<br />
12 Future Perfect Continuous Tense S + will + have + been + V-ing + dll<br />
13 Past Future Simple Tense S + would + V1 + dll<br />
14 Past Future Continuous Tense S + would + be + V-ing + dll<br />
15 Past Future Perfect Tense S + would + have + V3 + dll<br />
16 Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense S + would + have + been + V-ing </div><br />
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</div>hendrasmarthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10478205207072099754noreply@blogger.com1